Associate Professor Jaya Kandasamy

Shon, H., Phuntsho, S., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Aryal, R. & Jegatheesan, V. 2012, 'Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characterization of Membrane Fouling' in Tian C. Zhang, Rao Y. Surampalli, Saravanamuthu Vigneswaran, R. D. Tyagi, See Leong Ong, C.M.Kao (eds), Membrane Technology and Environmental Applications, American Society of Civil Engineers, USA, pp. 457-497.
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In this chapter, advanced characterization of membrane fouling as a diagnostic tool has been summarized to prevent membrane fouling. Physical, chemical and biological analyses as membrane autopsies are mainly utilized to better understand membrane foulant. The physical characteri zation gives structure, roughness, charge effect, strength and hydrophobicity of membrane fouling. The chemical methods provide qualitative and quantitative measurements of different inorganic and organic matter. The biological properties present the spatial biofilm distribution, structure of dominant microorgnisms and isolation and identification of microorganisms. In addition, detailed membrane foulant types are reviewed in terms of structure, roughness, hydrophobicity, charge effect, strength, calcium, magnesium, alluminum, iron, silicate, particle, functional group, biopolymer, humic acid, polysaccharide, structural composition, biofilm structure, microorganism and foulant interaction.

Orem, Y., Messalem, R., Ben-David, E., Herzberg, M., Kushmaro, A., Ji, X., Di Profio, G., Curcio, E., Drioli, E., Laroche, J.F., Remize, P., Leparc, J., Vigneswaran, S., Chinu, K.J., Johir, M.H., Lee, J., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K., Ye, Y., Sim, L.N., Herulah, B., Chen, V., Fane, A.C., Tansakul, C., Laborie, S. & Cabassud, C. 2011, 'Evaluation and comparison of seawater and brackish water pre-treatment' in Enrico Drioli, Alessandra Criscuofi and Francesca Macedonio (eds), Membrane-Based Desalination: An Integrated Approach (MEDINA), IWA Publishing, UK, pp. 33-70.
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The main objective of WP2 was to conduct a comprehensive evaluation on available pretreatment approaches for seawater, brackish water, and estuarinelbay water for membrane protection and recovery maximization. During the project promising results were obtained by UNlCAL and BGU on MBR as a means for reducing organic content from seawater as a step towards reducing fouling potentiaL It seems that the pretreatment in a MER system is effective at improving the water's quality (removal of TOC and EPS) for further process, but further economical and implemental examinations are necessary in order to adopt this treatment as an alternative pretreatment. The removal of particulate malter and organics from seawater by the use of biofiltration was investigated by UTS. Granular activated carbon (GAC) and anthracite were tested as a filter medium at two different velocities. The filtrate quality was evaluated by measuring the silt density index (SDI), modified fouling index (MFI) and turbidity removal. Both biofilters demonstrated similar behavior in terms of SDI and MFL In addition, fiber filter as pre-treatment of SWRO in terms ofMFI, SDI 10, pressure drop, turbidity and molecular weight distribution (MWD) was investigated with and without precoagulation. Submerged microfiltTation couplcd with physcio-chemical processes such as adsorption on powder activated carbon was investigated as well.

Jeong, S., Kim, S., Kim, C.M., Vigneswaran, S., Nguyen, T.V., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Kim, I.S. 2013, 'A detailed organic matter characterization of pretreated seawater using low-pressure microfiltration hybrid systems', Journal Of Membrane Science, vol. 428, pp. 290-300.
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In this study, two different submerged membrane hybrid systems (SMHSs) namely (i) submerged membrane coagulation hybrid system (SMCHS) and (ii) submerged membrane coagulation-adsorption hybrid system (SMCAHS) were investigated as pretreatment options for seawater reverse osmosis. Organic matters in seawater before and after pretreatment were characterized in terms of XAD fractionation, molecular weight distribution (MWD) and fluorescence. A detailed study on the seawater organic matter (SWOM) structure was made through 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), pyrolysis-gas chromatographyÔ++mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) and liquid chromatographyÔ++mass spectrometry-ion trap-time of fright (LC/MS-IT-TOF). The seawater investigated in this study is mainly composed of hydrophilic matter (5773.2%). SMHSs removed a significant amount of organic matter. The EEM fluorescence showed a removal of humic-like materials by SMHSs. In addition, humic-like materials relative to protein-like compounds were reduced significantly but the aromaticity of humic-like materials increased. After pretreatment by SMHSs, humics and biopolymers of over 900 Da. were found to be reduced and their structure associated with element composition was also changed. The transformation of the SWOM structure after SMHSs pretreatment may have been due to hydrolyzation or oxidization of the organic compounds such as humics and biopolymers resulting in poly-conjugation to aromatic compounds. SMHSs were effective in improving the RO performance leading to higher RO permeate flux and lower permeate flux decline. The pretreatment reduced the amount of foulants on the RO membrane.

Loganathan, P., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Naidu, R. 2013, 'Defluoridation of drinking water using adsorption processes', Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 248-249, pp. 1-19.
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Excessive intake of fluoride (F), mainly through drinking water, is a serious health hazard affecting humans worldwide. There are several methods used for the defluoridation of drinking water, of which adsorption processes are generally considered attractive because of their effectiveness, convenience, ease of operation, simplicity of design, and for economic and environmental reasons. In this paper, we present a comprehensive and a critical literature review on various adsorbents used for defluoridation, their relative effectiveness, mechanisms and thermodynamics of adsorption, and suggestions are made on choice of adsorbents for various circumstances. Effects of pH, temperature, kinetics and co-existing anions on F adsorption are also reviewed. Because the adsorption is very weak in extremely low or high pHs, depending on the adsorbent, acids or alkalis are used to desorb F and regenerate the adsorbents. However, adsorption capacity generally decreases with repeated use of the regenerated adsorbent. Future research needs to explore highly efficient, low cost adsorbents that can be easily regenerated for reuse over several cycles of operations without significant loss of adsorptive capacity and which have good hydraulic conductivity to prevent filter clogging during the fixed-bed treatment process.

mohammed, T., Vigneswaran, S., Loganathan, P., Kandasamy, J.K. & Aryal, R. 2013, 'Removal of inorganic contaminants from simulated stormwater by three sorbents in columns under intermittent runoff condition', Separation Science and Technology, vol. 42, no. 14, pp. 2340-2347.
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Combined removal of inorganic contaminants from a synthetic tormwater was investigated by their sorption on hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) (5%), HFO + Ca(OH)2(6%), and HFO + Ca(OH)2 + MnO2 (7%) in columns containing 93-95% anthracite, conducted under seven intermittent runoffs, each of 8 h duration with a 40 h (drying) period between them. At the initial period when Ca(OH)2 produced elevated pHs, the HFO column removed less metals but more Se than the HFO + Ca(OH)2 columns. With increased time when the pH effect of Ca(OH)2 became insignificant, the MnO2 in the column increased the removal of all contaminants. The removal efficiencies (%) at the flow rate of 0.75 m/h for Cd, Cu, Ni, Zn by the HFO + Ca(OH)2 + MnO2 column were 88-100%, and Se by the HFO column were 92-94% for the 1st and 3rd runs. The corresponding values for the 5th and 7th runs were 51-88% and 82-88%, respectively.

Ahmad, R., Nguyen, T.V., Shim, W.G., Vigneswaran, S., Moon, H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Effluent Organic Matter Removal By Purolite (R) A500PS: Experimental Performance And Mathematical Model', Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 98, pp. 46-54.
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In this study, the performance of Purolite(R)A500PS in effluent organic matter (EfOM) removal was evaluated through adsorption equilibrium, kinetics and fluidized bed experiments. It was found that the maximum EfOM removal capacity of Purolite A500PS calculated by the Langmuir isotherm was 50.9 mg DOC/g Purolite A500PS. The results also showed that fluidized bed operational conditions strongly affected the EfOM removal efficiency. A fluidized bed packed with Purolite A500PS can maintain a consistent EfOM removal efficiency of more than 80% with more than 800 bed volumes from 10 mg DOC/L of synthetic wastewater. A majority of hydrophilic compounds (76.4%) and a significant amount of hydrophobic compounds (55%) were removed by the Purolite A500PS fluidized bed. The Purolite(R) A500PS fluidized bed was also found to remove a majority of biopolymer (98.5%), humic substances (86.5%), and low molecular weight neutrals (83.3%).

Aryal, R., Johir, M.H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Sleigh, R. 2012, 'Performance Of A Stainless Steel Membrane In Membrane Bioreactor Process', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 41, no. 1-3, pp. 258-264.
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Stainless steel membrane has recently emerged as a durable membrane for microfiltration. An aerobic membrane bioreactor (MBR) equipped with a tubular stainless steel membrane of pore size 0.3Ô++++m was submerged in a wastewater reactor to treat municipal wastewater of about 1,000Ô++mg/L COD. The membrane operational performance was tested at three different permeate flux (7.5, 10 and 15Ô++L/m2Ô++h [LMH]) for 2 days each. In all cases, the rate of transmembrane pressure (TMP) rise was very high at 30, 45 and 80Ô++kPa for 7.5, 10 and 15Ô++LMH, respectively. Different analytical techniques i.e. particle size distribution, UV spectrometry, fluorescent spectrometry and size exclusion chromatography were used to study the nature of mixed liquor and the fouling deposited on the membrane surface. Rapid rise of TMP and decrease in permeate flux was observed during the experiment. Analysis of the fouling indicated a negligible difference in nature of organics between it and the mixed liquor. Filtration flux test showed a high sludge cake and pore-blocking resistance of 4.4Ô++++Ô++1019 and 2.8Ô++++Ô++1016Ô++mÔ++1, respectively, compared to a clean membrane resistance 5.4Ô++++Ô++1012Ô++mÔ++1. The similar nature of organics in the mixed liquor and the foulant and recovery of flux after removal of the foulant after gentle washing in water, indicated a rapid sludge accumulation rather than the irreversible fouling.

Beecham, S.C., Pezzaniti, D. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Stormwater Treatment Using Permeable Pavements', Water Management, vol. 165, no. 3, pp. 161-170.
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Permeable pavements are generally used in water-sensitive urban design as a component of a treatment train and as a source control measure for reducing stormwater flows and pollutant loads. In Australia, permeable pavement systems are an emerging technology and consequently there are few installations more than 10 years old. The performance of permeable pavements in terms of treatment of urban stormwater runoff from a number of typical, but different urban catchments is discussed. Water quality monitoring was carried out in the field to quantify the improvement that permeable pavement systems can make to runoff quality at a car park located at North Haven in Adelaide, South Australia, that utilise both conventional and permeable pavement systems. Extensive laboratory analysis using stormwater collected from four sites was carried out to assess the effectiveness of permeable pavement systems for reducing pollutant discharges. In general, the permeable pavement systems were found to improve stormwater quality when tested at a 5% significance level. The results show that, on average, permeable pavements were able to reduce nutrient concentrations (total nitrogen and total phosphorus), heavy metals (zinc, lead, copper, cadmium and nickel) and total suspended solids. The reductions in pollutant concentrations can be mainly attributed to mechanical filtration by various components of the permeable pavement system.

Chekli, L., Phuntsho, S., Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Chanan, A.P. 2012, 'A Review Of Draw Solutes In Forward Osmosis Process And Their Use In Modern Applications', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 43, no. 1-3, pp. 167-184.
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Forward osmosis (FO) is one of the emerging membrane technologies which has gained renewed interest recently as a low energy desalination process. The central to FO process is the draw solution (DS) and the membrane because both play a substantial role o

El Saliby, I., Okour, Y., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K., Lee, W.E. & Kim, J. 2012, 'TiO2 nanoparticles and nanofibres from TiCl4 flocculated sludge: Characterisation and photocatalytic activity', Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 1033-1038.
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In this study, dye and secondary effluent wastewaters were used to generate a non-hazardous sludge. Anatase TiO2 nanoparticles have been successfully synthesised from the calcination of the TiCl4 flocculated sludge. A conventional hydrothermal method was adopted to produce anatase nanofibres (calcined at 600 8C) from TiO2 nanoparticles. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy investigations showed the highly crystalline nanoparticles and nanofibres after calcination. The size of nanofibres was related to the size of their nanoparticles precursors. Nanoparticles had larger surface area than nanofibres, lower pore volume and bigger pore diameter. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis revealed that impurities can be successfully removed by a subsequent hydrothermal/acid wash of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles had better overall photocatalytic activity for the degradation of organics in synthetic wastewater compared to nanofibres. On the other hand, nanofibres had a better adsorption capacity.

Hong, S., Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S., Johir, M.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Influence of hydraulic retention time on the nature of foulant organics in a high rate membrane bioreactor', Desalination, vol. 287, no. 1, pp. 116-122.
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The influence of hydraulic retention time (HRT) in a submerged hollow fibre membrane bioreactor was studied by conducting experiments at four different HRTs (4,2, 1.3 and 1 h) at room temperature of 25 -¦C. lt was found that a shorter HRT led to a higher development of trans-membrane pressure. The highest sludge cake and pore-blocking resistances of 4.02 x 1011 m-1 and 0.77 x 1011 m-1 respectively were noted for the shortest HRT (of 1 h) application. UV and fluorescence spectroscopy analyses showed that the nature of organics in the biomass and sludge cakes were different. The organic fraction analysis by liquid chromatography with organic carbon detector (LC-OCO) showed a significant amount of biopolymers and a lower amount of humics for longer HRT.

Johir, M.H., Vigneswaran, S., Sathasivan, A.S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Chang, C. 2012, 'Effect Of Organic Loading Rate On Organic Matter And Foulant Characteristics In Membrane Bio-Reactor', Bioresource Technology, vol. 113, pp. 154-160.
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In this study, the influence of organic loading rate (OLR) on the performance of a membrane bio-reactor (MBR) was investigated. The MBR was operated with 6 different OLRs between 0.5 and 3.0 kg COD/m3 d. The hydrodynamic parameters of the MBR were kept constant. The hydraulic retention time and sludge retention time were kept at 8 h and 40 d respectively. From the experimental investigation, it was found that the removal efficiency of DOC, COD and NH4-N decreased when OLRs were increased from 0.5 to 3.0 kg COD/m3 d. Higher OLRs of 2.75-3.0 kg COD/m3 d resulted in a higher transmembrane pressure development. The fractionation of organic matters showed more hydrophilic substances with higher OLRs. A detailed organic matter characterization of membrane foulant, soluble microbial product and extracellular polymeric substances showed that bio-polymers type substances together with humic acid and lower molecular neutral and acids were responsible for membrane fouling.

Johir, M.A., George, J., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Sathasivan, A.S. & Grasmick, A. 2012, 'Effect Of Imposed Flux On Fouling Behavior In High Rate Membrane Bioreactor', Bioresource Technology, vol. 122, no. NA, pp. 42-49.
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The influence of imposed flux and aeration rates on membrane fouling in a submerged membrane bioreactor was studied. The experiments were conducted at four imposed fluxes and three aeration rates. The effect of flux on the reduction of membrane fouling w

Khiadani, M., Beecham, S.C. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Turbulence Measurements In Spatially-varied Flow With Increasing Discharge', Journal of Hydraulic Research, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 418-426.
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This experimental study explores the distribution of Reynolds shear stresses and turbulence intensities for a flume receiving lateral inflow via a set of vertical nozzles. The data set allows for developing turbulence models to describe a wider range of

Kus, B.G., Johir, M.H., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H., Sleigh, R. & Moody, G. 2012, 'Performance Of Granular Medium Filtration And Membrane Filtration In Treating Stormwater For Harvesting And Reuse', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 45, no. 1-3, pp. 120-127.
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This paper discusses laboratory scale and pilot scale treatment systems used to in treat water from a stormwater canal in Carlton, Sydney. The laboratory scale pre-treatment systems investigated included flocculation, GAC filtration and fibre filter prior to laboratory scale steriflow stainless steel membrane filter. The results showed that these pre-treatments improved the quality of the filtrate as measured by the turbidity and TOC removal effi ciency. The use of pre-treatment improved the TOC removal efficiency from 10% to 90%. Among the three pretreatment methods, GAC filter resulted in the highest TOC removal efficiency (88%). Pilot scale experiments were also carried out using stainless steel membrane filtration and GAC filtration at Carlton, Sydney. Pilot scale experiments showed that the Steri-Flow membrane filter treatment without any pre-treatment achieved an effluent fi ltrate turbidity of between 0.79Ô++0.99 NTU which were well below the 5 NTU ADWG (2004) limit [1]. The influent raw stormwater had generally low concentrations of heavy metals. Following membrane filtration the concentration of all heavy metals were reduced to very low levels and well within the ADWG (2004) [1] limits. The membrane fi lter could not remove TOC in significant amounts. GAC adsorption used as post-treatment following Steri-flow membrane treatment effectively reduced the TOC influent feed levels. GAC filtration of stormwater provided a 70% removal of organics. It removed all types of organic. The GAC filter did not provide any further improvement to the turbidity level or heavy metal concentration following treatment with the Steri-flow membrane system.

Kus, B.G., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H. & Moody, G. 2012, 'Two Stage Filtration For Stormwater Treatment: A Pilot Scale Study', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 45, no. 1-3, pp. 361-369.
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This paper presents the results of the granular medium filter and membrane (Ultra Flo membrane) filter experiments conducted with raw stormwater collected from a stormwater canal at Carlton, in Sydney. The filter medium experimented were granular activat

Loganathan, P., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Naidu, R. 2012, 'Cadmium Sorption And Desorption In Soils: A Review', Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 489-533.
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Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant that can be readily taken up by plants and may enter the food chain, causing risk to human health. It can also affect soil quality and, if easily leached, has the potential to pollute surface and ground waters. Sorption and desorption are critical processes controlling the phytoavailability and mobility of Cd in soils. The authors present the present knowledge on the mechanisms and hysteresis of Cd sorption and desorption in soils and factors such as pH, ionic strength, index cation, other heavy metal cations, inorganic anions, organic ligands, Cd loading rate, and the type and amounts of organic matter and inorganic colloids influencing these processes. The methods used to determine the nature and magnitude of Cd sorption and desorption are also critically reviewed.

Mohammed, T.M., Loganathan, P., Kinsela, A., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Enrichment, Inter-Relationship, And Fractionation Of Heavy Metals In Road-Deposited Sediments Of Sydney, Australia', Australian Journal of Soil Research, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 229-238.
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Urban road-deposited sediments (RDS) are potential sources of heavy metal pollution of both terrestrial and aquatic environments. We determined the heavy metals enrichments, their possible sources, and potential bioavailability and mobility in RDS from n

Mohammed, T.M., Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S., Loganathan, P., Kandasamy, J.K. & Naidu, R. 2012, 'Removal of heavy metals in stormwater by hydrous ferric oxide', Water Management, vol. 165, no. WM3, pp. 171-178.
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Stormwater runoff from urban and industrial areas contains several types of heavy metals that have negative ecological impacts on receiving waters, and therefore methods need to be developed to remove these pollutants. Combined removal of a mixture of heavy metal cations (Cu2+¥, Zn2+¥, Cd2+¥, and Ni2+¥) and an oxy anion (selenate, SeO42) from an artificially prepared stormwater was investigated by sorption of these heavy metals on hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) in a column experiment under intermittent runoff (wetting and drying) condition, as occurs between rainfall events in the field. The heavy metal removal behaviour varied between ions as well as with time. In each continuous column run (8 h) the amount of ions removed progressively decreased with time and reached a constant level at approximately 4Ô++6 h. However, stopping the runoff for 40 h and starting the next runoff after this period removed a large quantity of heavy metals in the first few hours of this run. The intermittent runoff for seven runs showed that HFO has a high capacity to remove copper and zinc, which were present in higher concentrations in the stormwater than cadmium, nickel and selenium.

Mohammed Abdul, J., Kumar, M.R., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Removal Of Metsulfuron Methyl By Fenton Reagent', Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 137-144.
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The removal of metsulfuron methyl (MeS)Ô++a sulfonyl urea herbicide from contaminated water was investigated by advanced oxidation process (AOP) using Fenton method. The optimum dose of Fenton reagent (Fe2+/H2O2) was 10 mg/L Fe2+ and 60 mg/L H2O2 for an initial MeS concentration ([MeS]0) range of 0Ô++80 mg/L. The Fenton process was effective under pH 3. The degradation efficiency of MeS decreased by more than 70% at pH > 3 (pH 4.5 and 7). The initial Fe2+ concentration ([Fe2+]0) in the Fenton reagent affected the degradation efficiency, rate and kinetics. The degradation of MeS at optimum dose of Fenton reagent was more than 95% for [MeS] 0 of 0Ô++40 mg/L and the degradation time was less than 30 min. The determination of residual MeS concentration after Fenton oxidation by UV spectrophotometry was affected by the interferences from Fenton reagent. The estimation of residual MeS concentration after Fenton oxidation by high pressure/performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC) was interference free and represented the actual concentration of MeS and does not include the by-products of Fenton oxidation. The degradation kinetics of MeS was modelled by second order reactions involving 8 rate constants. The two reaction constants directly involving MeS were fitted using the experimental data and the remaining constants were selected from previously reported values. The model fit for MeS and the subsequent prediction of H2O2 were found to be within experimental error tolerances.

Mohammed Abdul, J., Colville, A.E., Lim, R.P., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Use of duckweed (Lemna disperma) to assess the phytotoxicity of the products of Fenton oxidation of metsulfuron methyl', Ecotoxicology And Environmental Safety, vol. 83, pp. 89-95.
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Because of pressure on water supplies world-wide, there is increasing interest in methods of remediating contaminated ground waters. However, with some remediation processes, the breakdown products are more toxic than the original contaminant. Organic matter and salinity may also influence degradation efficiency. This study tested the efficiency of Fenton oxidation in degrading the sulfonylurea herbicide metsulfuron methyl (MeS), and tested the reaction products for phytotoxicity with the Lemna (duckweed) bioassay. The efficiency of degradation by FentonÔ++s reagent (Fe2+¥ -+0.09 mM; H2O2-+1.76mM, 4 h) decreased with increasing initial MeS concentration, from 98% with 5 mg/L MeS, to 63% with 70 mg/L MeS. Addition of NaCl (10 mM) and organic matter (humic acid at 0.2 and 2.0 mg C/L as Total Organic Carbon) reduced the efficiency of degradation at low initial MeS concentrations (5 and 10mg/L), but had no effect at high concentrations. The residual FentonÔ++s reagent after FentonÔ++s oxidation was toxic to Lemna. After removal of residual iron and H2O2, the measured toxicity to Lemna in the treated samples could be explained by the concentrations of MeS as measured by HPLC/UV detection, so there was no evidence of additional toxicity or amelioration due to the by-products or formulation materials.

Nur, T., Johir, M.A., Loganathan, P., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Effectiveness Of Purolite A500PS And A520E Ion Exchange Resins On The Removal Of Nitrate And Phosphate From Synthetic Water', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 47, pp. 50-58.
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Water pollution due to the excessive presence of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) is a serious environmental worldwide problem, because both species are implicated in the eutrophication of receiving surface waters and elevated nitrate concentration in drinking water can be toxic to infants. The removal efficiencies of nitrate and phosphate from water spiked with different ratios and concentrations of these nutrients by two ion-exchange resins (Purolite A500PS and Purolite A520E) were studied in batch kinetics and equilibrium adsorption experiments. Both purolites were found to be selective towards nitrate removal at all ratios of nitrate to phosphate in solution. Purolite A520E showed higher (<85%) removal efficiency of nitrate than Purolite A500PS (about 65%) from a solution containing 20mgN/L as nitrate and 10mgP/L as phosphate at a resin dose of 1.5 g/L. However, Purolite A500PS showed higher (65%) removal of phosphate than Purolite A520E (48%). Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models fitted well for the adsorption of nitrate on Purolite A520E (R2 = 0.95Ô++0.96). However, the adsorption of nitrate on Purolite A500PS can be explained satisfactorily only by Freundlich model (R2 = 0.98). The adsorption of phosphate on the resins fitted well to Freundlich model (R2 = 0.90) for Purolite A500PS as well as for Purolite A520E (R2 = 0.90). The adsorption of phosphate and nitrate on both ion-exchange resins was much better described by pseudo-second-order kinetic model (R2P0.99) than by pseudo-first-order kinetic model (R2 = 0.25Ô++0.94).

Pezzaniti, D., Beecham, S.C. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Stormwater Detention Basin For Improving Road-runoff Quality', Proceedings Of The Institution Of Civil Engineers-water Management, vol. 165, no. 9, pp. 461-471.
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Both wet and dry detention basins are commonly used for the treatment of road runoff. The basin investigated in this study was located on the eastern side of the southern expressway in Adelaide, Australia. Event mean pollutant concentrations (EMCs) and t

Phuntsho, S., Shon, H., Majeed, T., El Saliby, I., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Hong, S. & Lee, S. 2012, 'Blended Fertilizers as Draw Solutions for Fertilizer-Drawn Forward Osmosis Desalination', Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 46, pp. 4567-4575.
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In fertilizer-drawn forward osmosis (FDFO) desalination, the final nutrient concentration (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK)) in the product water is essential for direct fertigation and to avoid over fertilization. Our study with 11 selected fertilizers indicate that blending of two or more single fertilizers as draw solution (DS) can achieve significantly lower nutrient concentration in the FDFO product water rather than using single fertilizer alone. For example, blending KCl and NH4H2PO4 as DS can result in 0.61/1.35/1.70 g/L of N/P/K, which is comparatively lower than using them individually as DS. The nutrient composition and concentration in the final FDFO product water can also be adjusted by selecting low nutrient fertilizers containing complementary nutrients and in different ratios to produce prescription mixtures. However, blending fertilizers generally resulted in slightly reduced bulk osmotic pressure and water flux in comparison to the sum of the osmotic pressures and water fluxes of the two individual DSs as used alone. The performance ratio or PR (ratio of actual water flux to theoretical water flux) of blended fertilizer DS was observed to be between the PR of the two fertilizer solutions tested individually. In some cases, such as urea, blending also resulted in significant reduction in N nutrient loss by reverse diffusion in presence of other fertilizer species.

Phuntsho, S., Shon, H., Hong, S., Lee, S., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Fertiliser drawn forward osmosis desalination: the concept, performance and limitations for fertigation', Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 147-168.
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With the world's population growing rapidly, pressure is increasing on the limited fresh water resources. Membrane technology could play a vital role in solving the water scarcity issues through alternative sources such as saline water sources and wastewater reclamation. The current generation of membrane technologies, particularly reverse osmosis (RO), has significantly improved in performance. However, RO desalination is still energy intensive and any effort to improve energy efficiency increases total cost of the product water. Since energy, environment and climate change issues are all inter-related, desalination for large-scale irrigation requires new novel technologies that address the energy issues. Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging membrane technology. However, FO desalination for potable water is still a challenge because, recovery and regeneration of draw solutes require additional processes and energy. This article focuses on the application of FO desalination for non-potable irrigation where maximum water is required. In this concept of fertiliser drawn FO (FDFO) desalination, fertilisers are used as draw solutions (DS). The diluted draw solution after desalination can be directly applied for fertigation without the need for recovery and regeneration of DS. FDFO desalination can make irrigation water available at comparatively lower energy than the current desalination technologies. As a low energy technology, FDFO can be easily powered by renewable energy sources and therefore suitable for inland and remote applications. This article outlines the concept of FDFO desalination and critically evaluates the scope and limitations of this technology for fertigation, including suggestions on options to overcome some of these limitations

Phuntsho, S., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Hong, S., Lee, S. & Shon, H. 2012, 'Influence of temperature and temperature difference in the performance of forward osmosis desalination process', Journal Of Membrane Science, vol. 415-416, pp. 734-744.
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Forward osmosis (FO) is an emerging technology for low energy desalination. Amongst the many other factors, emperature of the draw solution (DS) and feed solution (FS) plays an important role in influencing the performance of the FO process. In this study, the influence of the temperature and the temperature difference on the performance of FO process has been studied in terms of water and solute fluxes. Temperature difference was maintained by elevating only one of the solutions (eitherDSorFS). The results indicate that, water flux on average increases by up to 1.2 % for every degree rise in temperature from 25-¦C to 35-¦C while this rise is 2.3% from 25-¦C to 45-¦C. Providing a temperature difference by elevating only the DS also enhanced the water flux significantly, although it was lower than FO process operated at isothermal conditions. However, elevating only the temperature of FS did not significantly improve the water flux although it was higher than the FO process operated at 25-¦C. This as significant implications in FO process because the total mass of the DS requiring heat energy is significantly less than the total FS used. The influences of temperature in the FO process such as through changes in the thermodynamic properties of the solutions and the various concentration polarisation effects are also explained in details.

Shim, W.G., Abdul, J., Mohammad, T., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2012, 'Biofilter In Leachate Treatment Processes', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 41, no. 1-3, pp. 249-257.
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Landfill leachate is produced when rainwater infiltrates into the landfill and permeates through the decomposing waste within the landfill leaching out with it contaminants and pollutants. Untreated leachates can permeate ground water or mix with surface

Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2011, 'Application of Ultraviolet (UV) Spectrophotometry in the Assessment of Membrane Bioreactor Performance for Monitoring Water and Wastewater Treatment', Applied Spectrocopy, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 227-232.
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Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy has been widely used in monitoring water and wastewater treatment. In this study UV spectroscopy was used to investigate fouling development on the membrane surface of membrane bioreactors. The chemistry of mixed liquor present in the membrane bioreactor and the foulant deposited on the membrane surface was compared by analyzing the UV spectra. The mixed liquor showed different spectra than did the foulant. The foulant spectra showed a shift in absorbance peaks with operation time. The particle size distribution (<450 nm) was also examined to explain the UV fingerprints.

Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S., Loganathan, P., Kandasamy, J.K. & Mohammed, T.M. 2011, 'Hydrous iron oxide for removal of inorganic contaminants in simulated stormwater: A batch sorption kinetics study', Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 1706-1712.
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Urban stormwater runoff, which consists of inorganic and organic contaminants, is a major source of pollutants to receiving waters and therefore they need to be removed. Simultaneous removal of contaminants, Cd2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Zn2+ (heavy metal cations), and SeO4 2Ô++ (oxyanion) from a simulated stormwater by a hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) was studied in batch and column sorption experiments. In the batch experiment the rate of sorption of the ions was rapid at the beginning and reached equilibrium in approximately 300 min. The amounts of ions sorbed were proportionate to the respective initial concentration of the ions added to the HFO. Cluster analysis showed that all heavy metals had similar sorption behavior, whereas Se had a distinctly different sorption process. Of the three different kinetic models tested the pseudo-first order kinetic model fitted the data the best. The column experimental results beyond 180 min were consistent with those of the batch experiment that the removal efficiencies of the ions were in proportion to the ion concentration in the feed. Below 180 min, Cu appeared to be preferentially removed than Zn.

Chanan, A.P., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Simmons, B. 2011, 'Lessons for a viable water recycling industry', Institution of Civil Engineers. Proceedings. Water Management, vol. 164, no. 5, pp. 213-219.
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The platform on which the labour government came to power in Australia in November 2007 included a policy of setting a national wastewater recycling target of 30% by the year 2015. A similar target-based approach was followed by the solid waste recycling industry in Australia the policy of which focused on supply and did not adequately acknowledge the price competitiveness of the product and its demand. This paper highlights the lessons from the solid waste recycling industry and applies them to the water recycling sector. A sound water pricing regime that reflects the true costs of water and a competitive water industry is offered as a better policy alternative to setting recycling targets.

Chinu, K.J., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Aryal, R. & Dharmapalan, D. 2011, 'Assessment of water treatment processes: detailed organic matter characterisation and membrane fouling indices at the Loddon Water Treatment Plant, Victoria, Australia', Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 274-281.
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Recent advances in membrane technology have led to its broad application, and reverse osmosis (RO) systems now represent the fastest growing segment of the desalination market. Its performance is hindered by membrane fouling. In this study pre-treatment methods to reduce RO fouling were investigated including flocculation, adsorption and ion exchange. Detailed organic characterisations were made in terms of florescence spectroscopy excitation emission matrix (EEM), UV254 absorbance and liquid chromatography-organic carbon detection (LCOCD). The different pre-treatment methods were assessed in terms of the fouling potential. This was quantified in terms of the modified fouling index measured using a dead-end cell micro-filtration (MF) unit. The existing pre-treatment of granular activated carbon (GAC) filter led to a good organic removal. Among the pre-treatment methods tested in the laboratory, purolite ion exchange/adsorption was found to be better than FeCl3 flocculation in terms of the amount as well as the wide range of organics removal. A pre-treatment of flocculation with Poly-ferric-silicate (PFSi) as flocculent gave a higher removal of organic matter compared to other pre-treatments tested. DOC was reduced from 11.5 to 4.25 mg/L, and it removed mostly the humic type substances.

El Saliby, I., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Kim, J. 2011, 'Synthesis, characterisation and separation of photoreactive Hydrogen-titanate nanofibrous channel', Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 77, no. 2, pp. 202-207.
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Australia is the world's largest wool producing country, accounting for about 25Ô++30% of world production. As a biotemplate, we explored the possibility of using wool to produce micro-channel of Hydrogentitanate nanofibres through morphology transcription of wool microfibres. Hydrothermal method was adopted to synthesise titanate nanofibres. A facile method of impregnation followed by incineration at 600 Ô+ªC was utilised to prepare the nanofibrous channel. Anatase undoped nanofibrous (average nanofibre diameter = 44 nm) channel of around 50 min length and an average diameter of 9.5 mwere obtained. The photocatalytic activity of nanofibrous channel was monitored under UV irradiation for the decomposition of humic acid in aqueous solution using an aerobic batch reactor system. The photodegradation results showed that UV254 absorbing moeities and DOC were respectively reduced by 82% and 66% after 3 h of photoreaction at 1 g/L catalyst load. The novel nanofibrous channel could be easily separated from the aqueous suspension by sedimentation after the end of the photocatalytic reaction.

Ho, D., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K., Chang, Y. & Chang, J.S. 2011, 'Photocatalysis of Trimethoprim (TRI) in Water', Sustainable Environment Research (SER), vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 149-154.
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The advantage of the use of photocatalysts to treat persistent organic pollutants (POP) was demonstrated with the decomposition of trimethoprim (TRI), an antibiotic most frequently detected in municipal wastewaters and surface waters. In this study, the oxidation process by UV/TiO2 was employed as an alternative to advanced oxidation process (AOP) to remove residual antibiotics from water. High concentrations of TRI were used to study the efficiency of photocatalysis. Both batch and continuous photoreactors were used. The decomposition of TRI by TiO2/UV photooxidation occurred gradually over time. On the other hand, with UV irradiation alone, the reduction of TRI mineralization was relatively small. The effect of light intensity showed there was no significant impact of UV light intensity on the degradation of TRI in the range of increasing intensities studied. The simulation using first-order kinetics provided a good fit with the experimental data. In the continuous system, the feed flow rate was adjusted to maximize the percentage of mineralization of targeted compounds inside the photoreactor. A lower flow rate, i.e., higher detention time, achieved higher percentage of TRI mineralization. The results indicated that TiO2/UV irradiation was effective in removing TRI.

Johir, M.H., Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Grasmick, A. 2011, 'Influence Of Supporting Media In Suspension On Membrane Fouling Reduction In Submerged Membrane Bioreactor (Smbr)', Journal Of Membrane Science, vol. 374, no. 1-2, pp. 121-128.
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In this study, the SMBR was compared in terms of membrane fouling with and without the addition of suspended medium in the membrane reactor. The effectiveness of medium in suspension in submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) was evaluated at different filt

Johir, M.H., George, J., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Grasmick, A. 2011, 'Removal and recovery of nutrients by ion exchange from high rate membrane bio-reactor (MBR) effluent', Desalination, vol. 275, no. 2, pp. 197-202.
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In this study a membrane bioreactor (MBR) with ion-exchange as post-treatment was investigated for organic removal and nutrient recovery. The MBR was operated at a short HRT of 4 h in order to mainly remove organic carbon. This was followed by an ion-exchange process to remove and later recover the nitrogen and phosphorus from the MBR effluent. The increase in membrane resistance was reduced by 90% (from 0.061 to 0.006 m-1d-1) when the air scouring rate was increased from 0.5 to 1.5 m3/m2 membrane area h. The organic removal rate in terms of DOC was 85Ô++90%. The bio-polymer in the molecular weight range of 24,500 Da was retained by the membrane of the MBR while humic type substances and lower molecular organic matter (molecular weight of 360Ô++60 Da) were not effectively removed by the membrane. The ion-exchange process effectively removed the nutrients from the effluent of the MBR. The retention of PO4 3Ô++ and NO3 Ô++ by the two ion-exchange columns in series was 85% and 95% respectively. Over 95Ô++98% phosphate and nitrate recovery was obtained during regeneration of columns with 1% NaCl of 20 bed volumes. This integrated process can remove pollutants and at the same time recover nutrients and thus open a new source for nitrogen and phosphorous.

Kus, B.G., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S. & Shon, H. 2011, 'Water Quality in Rainwater Tanks in Rural and Metropolitan Areas of New South Wales, Australia', Journal of Water Sustainability, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 33-43.
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This paper compares the water quality of rainwater tanks throughout the Sydney metropolitan area to that in rural New South Wales, Australia. The water quality is compared against the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (AGWR) to determine if the untreated rainwater from both areas can be considered suitable for non-potable water supply without filtration. Additionally this paper reports on a set of experiments where rainwater collected from a typical domestic roof in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia was treated by a pre-treatment of granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption filter followed by micro-filtration. The GAC column removed the pollutants through an adsorption mechanism. GAC is a macroporous solid with a very large surface area providing many sites for adsorption and it is this property that makes it an efficient adsorbent. The parameters analysed were ammonia, anions and cations, heavy metals, nitrate and nitrite, pH, total hardness, total organic carbon, total suspended solids and turbidity. The results indicate that before treatment, the rainwater already complied to many of the parameters specified in the AGWR, certain pollutants have the potential at times to exceed the AGWR. The water quality was within the AGWR limits after the treatment. The micro- filtration flux values demonstrate that rainwater was able to be filtered through the membranes under low gravitational heads that are typically available in a rainwater tank while still producing sufficient membrane flux and pollutant removal rates.

Kus, B.G., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H. & Areerachakul, N. 2011, 'Water quality of membrane filtered rainwater', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 32, pp. 208-213.
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Although most Australians receive their domestic supply from reticulated mains or town water, there are vast areas with very low population densities and few reticulated supplies. In many of these areas rainwater collected in tanks is the primary source of drinking water. Heavy metals are a concern as their concentration in rainwater tanks was found to exceed recommended levels suitable for human consumption. This paper reports on experimental investigations where rainwater collected from a typical domestic roof in Sydney, Australia was treated in two stages of filtration including granular activated carbon (GAC) as a pre-treatment adsorption filter media and a metallic membrane from Steri-flow Filtration Systems Pty. Ltd. The quality of the treated rainwater was compared against the drinking water standards to determine its suitability as a supplement for potable water supply. The pollutants analysed were heavy metals, total coliform and faecal coliforms, total organic carbon, total suspended solids and turbidity. The results indicate that before treatment, the rainwater already complied with many of the parameters specified in drinking water standards. The metallic membrane performed well in removing suspended particles and heavy metals from the rainwater. The performance of the metallic membrane is greatly improved by the use of pre-treatment such as GAC which was used in this experiment.

Mohammed, T.M., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2011, 'Biofiltration as pre-treatment to water harvesting and recycling', Water Science and Technology, vol. 63, no. 10, pp. 2097-2105.
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This paper presents the results of the long term biofilter experiments conducted with raw stormwater collected from a canal at Carlton, in Sydney. Anthracite and granular activated carbon (GAC) were used as a single filter media in biofilter columns. Media heights of 75 and 40 cm were used. The filter columns were operated at filtration velocities of 0.12 and 0.25 m/h. The removal efficiency for turbidity and DOC for the GAC filter media were found to be 75% and almost 100% respectively. The removal efficiency for the anthracite filter was much lower. Molecular weight distribution analysis showed an almost similar trend to the DOC removal. Compared with anthracite filter media, the GAC biofilter removed a much larger range of organic compounds present in the stormwater. The GAC biofilter removes organic matter earlier as compared to anthracite. Based on a limited sample of stormwater, the removal efficiency for phosphorus was upto 74% and that of nitrogen was up to 30%. In general GAC filter shows higher heavy metal removal efficiency than anthracite. The removal of zinc, iron, lead and nickel were good. However the concentration of heavy metal in the raw surface water sample was low.

Nguyen, T.V., Zhang, R., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Mathes, P. 2011, 'Removal of organic matter from effluents by Magnetic Ion Exchange (MIEX)', Desalination, vol. 276, no. 1-3, pp. 96-102.
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Magnetic Ion Exchange Resin (MIEX-«) is effective in removing the majority of organic carbon from biologically treated wastewater. It removed 77% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from synthetic wastewater when operated in batch mode using a MIEX-« concentration of 10 mL/L. A pseudo secondorder reaction rate model namely the Ho model was used for the kinetic study and it was found that it provided a realistic description of the adsorption kinetics of DOC. A fluidised bed MIEX-« contactor effectively removed organic matter from synthetic biologically treated sewage effluent with more than 60% DOC removal even after 172 bed volumes. The regenerated MIEX-« resin did not display any significant reduction in its ability to remove organic matter.

Pradhan, M., Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2011, 'Application of air flow for mitigation of particle deposition in submerged membrane microfiltration', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 32, pp. 201-207.
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This study investigates the effect of microfiltration operating conditions on membrane fouling of colloidal particles of kaolin clay. Experiments were conducted with a flat sheet membrane submerged in a suspension prepared from kaolin clay powder of size varying from 0.1 to 4 mm (Sigma) with a mean particle size 2.10 mm. The particle size distribution of clay was unimodal and the concentration of kaolin clay was similar to the biomass concentration in a membrane bioreactor (10 g/L). The effects of scouring and permeate flux rates were studied in terms of the membrane fouling rate. A linear relationship between the transmembrane pressure (TMP) and particle deposition was established for different air flow rates and permeate flow rates. Air scouring was more effective at a low permeate flux. There was only a minor change in the mean particle size of deposited colloidal particles on the membrane at a given flux under varying air flows and at the beginning all had a similar rise in TMP. However, at the later stages as particles accumulated on the membrane surface there was a significant rise in TMP. 15 LMH flux was observed as critical flux beyond which a rise in the permeate flux showed a sharp rise in the TMP which varied with air flow rates and particle deposition. The sharp TMP rise that occurred during the initial few hours of operation indicated that air flow for fouling mitigation strategies should target this period to optimise the membrane process. The study showed that air flow and flux rates are the two major governing factors for particle deposition on the membrane surface.

Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Kim, J. & Kim, J. 2011, 'Advanced Characterization Techniques Of Organic Matter In Aqueous Solutions', Journal of the Korean Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 1-14.
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Water is the most precious resource to human being, but it is polluted by different organic compounds. Organic matter (OM) in aqeous solutions is one of the important parameters of concern for human and environmental impact, and thus, it is essential to

Singh, G., Kandasamy, J.K., Shon, H. & Cho, J. 2011, 'Measuring treatment effectiveness of urban wetland using hybrid water quality - Artificial neural network (ANN) model', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 32, pp. 284-290.
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Constructed wetlands are now commonly used as tertiary treatment for urban stormwater. The wetlands have primary advantage over other forms of treatment as they remove dissolved organics and heavy metals in conjunction with other pollutants. The effectiveness of a wetland is a primary concern for validating its compliance with design objectives and regulatory requirements. The treatment in a wetland is however complex and is dependent on input pollutants, hydraulics, physicochemical balance and biota within the wetland. Several models are available for wetlands but have limitations in simulating the physico-chemical and biological processes within the wetland. The aim of this paper is to introduce a hybrid modelling approach that involves both a deterministic model and artificial neural network (ANN) for testing the effectiveness of a constructed wetland at Olympic Park, Homebush, Sydney, Australia. This novel approach allows a combination of calibrated water quality and neural based models to predict the water quality from the wetland. The models were calibrated and validated using water quality monitoring data measured for eight months in both influent and effluent streams of the wetland. The calibrated hybrid models were then tested for treatment effectiveness for range of wet, dry and median flows conditions within the catchments. A water quality index was developed and used to quantify the effectiveness of the wetland.

Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Baral, B. & Grasmick, A. 2010, 'Influence of aeration and permeate flux on deposition of particulates on membrane surface', Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 979-986.
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In microfiltration, a deposit of foulant tends to form on the membrane surface and this usually controls the performance of the filtration process. This paper discusses the influence of physical parameters such as aeration and permeates flux on migration and deposition of above micron particles on the membrane surface. Kaolin clay suspension of particle 3.7Ô++8 mm with mean particle diameter 4.1 mm was used in this study. Equal amount of mass of deposited particles on the membrane surface created different transmembrane pressure (TMP) when operated at different aeration rates and permeate flux showing that there is a composite effect. The particle deposition rate at the beginning at lower flux was almost linear which changed to a sharp logarithamic rise at higher flux. The difference in TMP rise for the same amount of deposit demonstrated the selective nature of particle deposition. The mass of the particle deposition on the membrane surface could be described by two parameters: maximum deposition and time using a simple empirical logarithamic equation y=k/[1+exp(b-at)], where k, a, and b are constant; y is the particulate mass deposit (g/m2) and t is the time. The maximum particle mass deposition growth could be described by the equation dy/dt=1/4ka.

Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Influence of buoyant media on particle layer dynamics in microfiltration membranes', Water Science & Technology: Water Supply, vol. 61, no. 7, pp. 1733-1738.
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This study forms a part of the physical study of the membrane bioreactor in presence of buoyancy media. Kaolin clay suspension with buoyancy media (anthracite) was used as a suspension and the particle layer development on membrane surface with evolution of time was studied. Presence of buoyancy media reduced the pressure development by almost two folds compared to in absence of the media. The particles deposition on membrane surface was size selective. The mean particle diameter (0.45mm) deposited on the membrane surface remained almost similar in presence of the media after 7 hrs run where as in its absence the mean diameter finer particles deposition occurred at the beginning followed by coarser particles.

Aryal, R., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Naidu, R. 2010, 'Urban stormwater quality and treatment', Korean Journal Of Chemical Engineering, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 1343-1359.
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Stormwater runoff from urban and suburban areas generates numerous pollutants. The areas include residential areas, parks, commercial areas, industrial areas and road/highways. Land use and human activities largely determine the nature and level of pollutants. Among the various types of pollutants that can contribute to adverse water quality impact in receiving water bodies, of concern are suspended solids, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nutrients. This paper provides a critical review of the characteristics and sources of urban stormwater pollutants and the manner in which the pollution occurs. Treatment systems for urban stormwater runoff and for urban stormwater harvesting are discussed.

Chanan, A.P., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S., Spyrakis, G., Ghetti, I. & idris, E. 2010, 'Applied Rainwater Harvesting Education: An Australian Case Study', Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 32-35.
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Rainwater tanks have been an integral part of the Australian landscape given the vital role these tanks have played over the years in rural Australia. In the past Local government and Water Authorities actively discouraged the use of rainwater tanks and informing citizens that they were illegal and dangerous. Kogarah Council within the Sydney metropolitan area is a proactive Council, and became the first council in Sydney to adopt Total Water Cycle Management (TWCM) principles into its Sustainability Management Plan, integrating these principles into on-ground projects at a catchment level in a planned and strategic approach. Among it priority projects was the Rainwater Tanks in Schools. This paper outlines how this project assisted all 22 schools in the Kogarah LGA (The Local Government Association) to increase the efficiency of water use and install rainwater tanks to reduce potable water use in toilet flushing and irrigating school gardens. The rainwater harvesting reduced the amount of drinking water used for toilet flushing and/or irrigation. The rainwater tanks also act as a visual reminder to conserve water for the students. The project has equipped the next generation with the necessary tools to make informed decisions and undertake actions that will move towards achieving sustainability.

Chanan, A.P., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Shon, H. 2010, 'Chemical-assisted physico-biological water mining system', Institution of Civil Engineers. Proceedings. Water Management, vol. 163, no. 9, pp. 469-474.
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Water mining is the process of extracting valuable water from a sewerage network by treating raw sewage to high standards. A range of commercially viable water mining treatment technologies are now available to treat sewage to specified water quality targets. Most of these technologies have minimal plant footprint requirements, making them suitable for decentralised operations. This paper discusses a hybrid water mining system that includes chemically assisted fine solids separation followed by a biological treatment process. Results from the first proof testing of this water mining system in Sydney, Australia are presented. The results confirm the suitability of the hybrid system for producing high-quality water for non-potable reuse.

Chanan, A.P., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Valuing stormwater, rainwater and wastewater in the soft path for water management: Australian case studies', Water Science And Technology, vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 2854-2861.
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A Water Sensitive City is now commonly acknowledged best practice for designing the cities of the future. In Australia, the National Water Initiative has allocated high priority towards offering insight into successful water sensitive urban development projects, to facilitate capacity building within the industry. This paper shares innovative water sensitive projects implemented at Kogarah City Council, in Sydney. Four key projects are discussed, demonstrating how stormwater, rainwater and wastewater can be incorporated into decentralised water systems to offer sustainable water management of the future. The case studies included in the paper highlight KogarahÔ++s journey towards the Soft Path for Water Management.

Chinu, K.J., Johir, M.H., Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Assessment of pretreatment to microfiltration for desalination in terms of fouling index and molecular weight distribution', Desalination, vol. 250, no. 2, pp. 644-647.
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In this study, different processes such as flocculation with ferric chloride (FeCl3) and deep bed filtration (sand filtration and dual media filtration) as a pre-treatment to microfiltration (MF) were used for seawater desalination. The performance of these pre-treatments was determined in terms of silt density index (SDI) and modified fouling index (MFI) and flux decline in MF. Flux decline of MF with seawater was 45% without any pre-treatment, 42% after pre-treatment of FeCl3 flocculation, 24% after pre-treatment of sand filtration with in-line coagulation and 22% after pre-treatment of dual media filtration (sand and anthracite), respectively. MFI and SDI also indicated that deep bed filtration with in-line flocculation was better pretreatment than flocculation alone. Detailed molecular weight distribution (MWD) of seawater organic matter was examined after different pretreatments. MWD of the initial seawater mainly ranged from 1510 Da to 130 Da. Deep bed filtration with in-line flocculation removed relatively large molecular weight of organic matter (1510Ô++1180 Da), while the small molecular weights (less than 530 Da) were not removed.

Chinu, K.J., Vigneswaran, S., Erdei, L., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Ngo, H.H. 2010, 'Comparison of fouling indices in assessing pre-treatment for seawater reverse osmosis', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 18, no. 1-5, pp. 187-191.
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In this study, different processes such as flocculation with ferric chloride (FeCl3) and deep bed filtration (sand filtration and dual media filtration) as a pre-treatment were used for seawater desalination. The performance of these pre-treatments was determined in terms of silt density index (SDI) and modified fouling index by using microfilter (MF-MFI), ultrafilter (UF-MFI), and nanofilter (NF-MFI) membrane. MFI and SDI indicated that deep bed filtration with in-line flocculation was better pre-treatment than flocculation alone as colloidal particles are removed after this pretreatment. UF-MFI and NF-MFI indicated that these pretreatment cannot remove dissolved organic matter as the fouling reduction was smaller. Detailed molecular weight distribution (MWD) of seawater organic matter was examined after different pretreatments. MWD of the initial seawater mainly ranged from 1510 Da to 130 Da. Deep bed filtration with in-line flocculation removed relatively large molecular weight of organic matter (1510Ô++1180 Da), while the small molecular weights (less than 530 Da) were not removed.

El Saliby, I., Shon, H., Okour, Y., Vigneswaran, S., Senthilnanthanan, M. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Production of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles and Nanostructures from Dye Wastewater Sludge - Characterisation and Evaluation of Photocatalytic activity', Journal of Advanced Oxidation Technologies, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 15-20.
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Producing a useful catalyst (TiO2) from sludge is possible after the incineration of sludge produced from the flocculation of wastewater by Ti-salts. In this study, TiO2 was successfully produced from dye wastewater sludge. Titanate nanotubes and nanoaggregates were produced through alkaline-hydrothermal and hydrogen peroxide treatments, respectively. Catalysts were characterised using scanning electron microscope and BET surface measurement. The photocatalytic activity was monitored for the photodegradation of organics in synthetic wastewater (SWW) and the photodecomposition of gas acetaldehyde. Nanotubes with a high surface area of 155.83 m2/g were obtained by alkaline-hydrothermal treatment, while lower surface area (65.22 m2/g) nanoaggregates were synthesized after hydrogen peroxide treatment. In general, nanoparticles, nanotubes and nanoaggregates showed mild photocatalytic activity. All catalysts showed similar photocatalytic activity for the photodecomposition of organics in SWW and the photodecomposition of acetaldehyde.

Erdei, L., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Modelling of submerged membrane flocculation hybrid systems using statistical and artificial neural networks methods', Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology. AQUA, vol. 59, no. 2-3, pp. 198-208.
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Hybrid membrane filtration processes involve complex physical, chemical and biological phenomena, thus their mechanistic modelling is challenging. The chief advantages of statistical and artificial neural networks (ANN) models (data-driven models) are that they do not require assumptions and simplifications to establish relationships from data. This paper investigates the characteristics and performance of several data-driven methods to model a hybrid membrane system. The focus is on the application of regression analysis and artificial intelligence based methods to a steady-state system. Among empirically based approaches, ANN neural networks methods were found to be very useful to predict permeate quality and membrane fouling. In the past multivariate nonlinear regression had barely been investigated for process modelling in water and waste water treatment. In this study polynomial multivariate nonlinear regression showed a superior performance. Multivariate parametric nonlinear models could match the performance of the nonparametric ANN models in the empirical modelling of complex systems, especially when combined with advanced optimization methods. This paper gives the methodology of how one could optimize a membrane hybrid system using ANN, validating it with one set of data. The same procedure/methodology can be applied to similar systems.

Guo, W., Zhang, R., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Membranes coupled with physico chemical treatment in water reuse', Water Science and Technology, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 513-519.
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In this study, short-term experiments were conducted with different configurations of membrane hybrid systems to treat biological treated sewage effluent containing refractory organic pollutants: (i) submerged hollow fiber microfiltration (SMF) alone; (ii) spiral flocculator (SF)-SMF without settling; (iii) SF-PAC-SMF without settling and (iv) SMF with magnetic ion exchange resin MIEXw pretreatment. The results indicated that the pre-flocculation of SF could improve the mitigation of membrane fouling significantly even when the system was operated at a high membrane filtration rate. The transmembrane pressure (TMP) of SF-PAC-SMF only increased marginally (0.8 kPa over 8 hours). SF-SMF without the addition of powdered activated carbon (PAC) also took a relatively long duration for the TMP to increase. The TMP only increased by 2.5 kPa over 8 hours. The SF-PAC-MF system resulted in a high dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal of more than 96%. When used as pre-treatment to submerged membranes, the fluidized bed MIEXw contactor could remove a significant amount of organic matter in wastewater. This pre-treatment helped to reduce the membrane fouling and kept the TMP low during the membrane operation.

Ho, D., Senthilnanthan, M., Mohammad, J., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Mahinthakumar, G. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'The Application Of Photocatalytic Oxidation In Removing Pentachlorophenol From Contaminated Water', Journal of Advanced Oxidation Technologies, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 21-26.
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The degradation of sodium salt of pentachlorophenol (PCPS) by photocatalysis with titanium dioxide (TiO2) as the catalyst was investigated. The residual PCPS after photo-degradation was analyzed by high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC) while the c

Johir, M.H., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Hybrid filtration method for pre-treatment of stormwater', Water Science And Technology, vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 2937-2943.
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In this study the hybrid filtration process (combining fibre filter with deep bed dual media filtration) was investigated as pre-treatment to stormwater. This process was investigated in-terms of reduction in turbidity, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), colour, headloss development across the filters, suspended solids removal, organic matter removal, nutrients and heavy matter (such as iron, copper, lead, zinc) removal efficiency. A comparison was made between the hybrid filter with single media (sand) deep bed filter and fibre filter. It was found that the hybrid filtration system successfully removed turbidity (98%), colour (99%), suspended solids (99%), and DOC (55%). The removal efficiency of heavy metal was relatively low as the concentration of heavy metals present in stormwater was low. The removal efficiency of nitrate, nitrite and phosphorous (as orthophosphate) was 27, 35 and 72% respectively. Hybrid filtration processes showed a better reduction of Modified Fouling Index (MFI) value (from 15.500 s/l2 to 9 s/l2) compared with single media sand, anthracite and fibre filter which were 35 s/l2, 13 s/l2 and 14 s/l2 respectively when operated at FeCl3 dose of 15 mg/l.

Kus, B.G., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S. & Shon, H. 2010, 'Analysis of first flush to improve the water quality in rainwater tanks', Water Science and Technology, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 421-428.
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Although most Australians receive their domestic supply from reticulated mains or town water, there are vast areas with very low population densities and few reticulated supplies. In many of these areas rainwater collected in tanks is the primary source of drinking water. Heavy metals have recently become a concern as their concentration in rain water tanks was found to exceed recommended levels suitable for human consumption. Rainwater storage tanks also accumulate contaminants and sediments that settle to the bottom. Although not widely acknowledged, small amounts of contaminants such as lead found in rain water (used as drinking water) may have a cumulative and poisonous effect on human health over a life time. This is true for certain factors that underlie many of the chronic illnesses that are becoming increasingly common in contemporary society. The paper reports on a study which is part of a project that aims to develop a cost effective in-line filtration system to improve water quality in rainwater tanks. To enable this, the characteristics of rainwater need to be known. One component of this characterization is to observe the effects of the first flush on a rainwater tank. Samples of the roof runoff collected from an urban residential roof located in the Sydney Metropolitan Area in the initial first few millimetres of rain were analysed. The results show that bypassing the first 2mm of rainfall gives water with most water quality parameters compliant with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) standards. The parameters that did not comply were lead and turbidity, which required bypassing approximately the first 5mm of rainfall to meet ADWG standards. Molecular weight distribution (MWD) analysis showed that the concentration of rainwater organic matter (RWOM) decreased with increasing amount of roof runoff.

Kus, B.G., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S. & Shon, H. 2010, 'Water quality characterisation of rainwater in tanks at different times and locations', Water Science and Technology, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 429-439.
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Rainwater collected from ten domestic roofs in Sydney and from one in Wollongong, a town south of Sydney, Australia was analysed to determine the water quality and to compare against the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) to determine its suitability as a potable water supply. The pollutants analysed were 13 heavy metals, 8 salts & minerals, pH, ammonia, orthophosphate, conductivity, water hardness, turbidity, total suspended solids, Total dissolved salts & Bicarbonate. The results indicate that the rainwater tested complied to most of the parameters specified in the ADWG. Molecular weight distribution of organic matter from one of the domestic rainwater tanks was analysed in terms of the effects of aging and roof contact. Molecular weight distribution of organic matter in rainwater showed prominent peaks at 37,500 daltons may be due to biopolymers, 850 Da to humic substances, 500 Da to building blocks, 220 Da to low MW acids, and less than 220 Da to amphiphilics. The findings also indicate that the first flush volumes that by-passed the tank can have a significant influence on the water quality in the rainwater tank.

Lee, J., Johir, M.H., Chinu, K.J., Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Kim, C.W. & Shaw, K. 2010, 'Novel pre-treatment method for seawater reverse osmosis: Fibre media filtration', Desalination, vol. 250, no. 2, pp. 557-561.
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A high rate fibre filter was used as a pre-treatment to seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) to reduce membrane fouling. Seawater was drawn from Chowder Bay where the Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Australia is located. A lab-scale fibre filter with a height of 1000 mm and a diameter of 30 mm was used in conjunction with in-line coagulation. The effect of operating the fibre filter with different packing densities (105, 115 kg/m3) and filtration velocities (40, 60 m/h) was investigated in terms of silt density index (SDI10), modified fouling index (MFI), pressure drop (++P), turbidity and molecular weight distribution (MWD). The use of in-line coagulation improved the performance of fibre filter as measured by the MFI and SDI. Regardless of filtration velocity and packing density the MFI and SDI10 values remained low as did the turbidity until the end of the filtration run. The MWD analysis showed the removal efficiencies of organic materials like biopolymers, fulvic acids, low MW acids for even experiments with the highest filtration velocity (60 m/h) and lowest packing density (105 kg/m3). This pre-treatment has a small foot print as it has the capacity of operating at a very high filtration velocity

Mohammed Abdul, J., Vigneswaran, S., Shim, W.G. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Removal of metsulfuron methyl by granular activated carbon adsorption', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 21, no. 1-3, pp. 247-254.
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The removal of metsulfuron methyl (MSM) from aqueous solution (a sulfonyl urea herbicide) was investigated by adsorption both in batch and fixed bed processes. Coal based granular activated carbon (GAC) was used as an adsorbent. The adsorption equilibrium, isotherms and kinetics of MSM were studied and the data was fitted into various mathematical models. The adsorption equilibrium was fitted by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. Homogeneous surface diffusion model (HSDM) kinetic equation with Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm model was successfully applied to predict the adsorption kinetics data for various concentrations of MSM. The average mass transfer coefficients (kf) were 2.125 10 5 and 2.198 10 5 m/s with the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm model, respectively. The Bohart-Adams, Thomas, and Yoon and Nelson empirical models were attempted to fit long term column adsorption data. Overall, the Thomas model was found to best simulate the fixed bed adsorption of MSM.

Nguyen, T.V., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2010, 'Arsenic removal by iron oxide coated sponge: Experimental performance and mathematical models', Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 182, no. 1-3, pp. 723-729.
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Millions of people worldwide are at risk from the presence of arsenic in groundwater. In this study, adsorption equilibrium and long term experiments were carried out to evaluate the performance of iron oxide coated sponge (IOCSp) in arsenic removal. It was found that maximum adsorption capacity of IOCSp for As(III) and As(V) calculated by Sips isotherm was 4.2 and 4.6 mg/g of IOCSp, respectively. A filter packed with small amount of 25 g IOCSp maintained a consistent arsenic removal efficiency of 95% from synthetic solution containing arsenic concentration of as high as 1000 g/L. This produced a throughput volume of 153 and 178 L of water containing As III) and As(V), respectively before any need for regeneration or disposal of IOCSp. IOCSp could be regenerated by washing it with NaOH solution. The dynamic (column) adsorption kinetics were successfully predicted by the Thomas and Nikolaidis modified models.

Shon, H., Phuntsho, S., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Nghiem, L.D., Kim, G., Kim, J.B. & Kim, J. 2010, 'Preparation of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles from Electrocoagulated Sludge using Sacrificial Titanium Electrodes', Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 44, no. 14, pp. 5553-5557.
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A comprehensive investigation of electrocoagulation using sacrificial titanium (Ti) electrodes in wastewater was carried out. The effects of specific process variables, such as initial pH, mixing, current density, initial organic loading, and ionic/ electrolyte strength were first optimized to produce recyclable Ti-based sludge. The sludge was incinerated at 600-¦C to produce functional TiO2 photocatalyst. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that TiO2 produced at optimum electrocoagulation conditions was mostly anatase structure. The specific surface area of the synthesized TiO2 photocatalyst was higher than that of the commercially available and widely used Degussa P-25 TiO2. Furthermore, energy dispersive X-ray and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses showed that in additional to titanium and oxygen, this photocatalyst is also composed of carbon and phosphorus. These elements were mainly doped as a substitute site for the oxygen atom. Transmission electron microscopy images exhibited sharply edged nanorods, round nanoparticles, and nanotubes with nonuniform shapes showing some structural defects. Photodecomposition of gaseous acetaldehyde by this photocatalyst was also conducted under UV and visible light irradiation to study the photocatalytic properties of the doped TiO2 photocatalyst. While no photocatalytic activity was observed under visible light irradiation, this doped TiO2 photocatalyst exhibited high photocatalytic activity under UV light.

Shon, H., Phuntsho, S., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Kim, J.B., Park, H.J. & Kim, I.S. 2010, 'PVDF-TiO2 Coated microfiltration membranes: preparation and characterization', Membrane Water Treatment, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 193-206.
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Organic fouling and biofouling pose a significant challenge to the membrane filtration process. Photocatalysis-membrane bybrid system is a novel idea for reducing these membranes fouling however, when TiO2 photocatalyst nanoparticles are used in suspension, catalyst recovery is not only imposes an extra step on the process but also significantly contributes to increased membrane resistance and reduced permeate flux. In this study, TiO2 photocatalyst has been immobilized by coating on the microfiltration (MF) membrane surface to minimize organic and microbial fouling. Nano-sized TiO2 was first synthesized by a sol-gel method. The synthesized TiO2 was coated on a Poly Vinyl Difluoride (PVDF) membrane (MF) surface using spray coating and dip coating techniques to obtain hybrid functional composite membrane. The characteristics of the synthesized photocatalyst and a functional composite membrane were studied using numerous instruments in terms of physical, chemical and electrical properties. In comparison to the clean PVDF membrane, the TiO2 coated MF membrane was found more effective in removing methylene blue (20%) and E-coli (99%).

Areerachakul, N., Kitiphatmontree, M., Kandasamy, J.K., Kus, B.G., Duangduen, C., Pivsa-Art, S. & Vigneswaran, S. 2009, 'Submerged Membrane System with Biofilter as a Treatment to Rain Water', Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus, vol. 9, no. 5-6, pp. 431-438.
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Rainwater has been used as drinking water in Thailand for centuries especially in the rural parts and is accepted as an important water resource. From past to present, the quality of rainwater has changed with the landuse of the landscape, and its water quality is influenced by a diverse range of conditions such as the management of pollutant sources, the catchment condition, wind and meteorological conditions, and the location of rainwater collection points. In this study, the quality of rainwater collected off roofs at several locations was examined. Granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration was used as a pretreatment to microfiltration (MF) to remove the dissolved organic matter (DOC). After an initial adsorption period, the biofilm that formed on the GAC (biofilter) was found to remove DOC by up to 40%, 35%, and 15% for bed filter depths of 15, 10, and 5 cm, respectively. Biofilters also removed nitrate and phosphate by more than 80% and 35%. The hollow fiber membrane microfiltration with pore size of 0.1 ++m was used to treat the effluent from biofiltration to remove the microorganisms/pathogens in the rainwater. Although there was no significant additional removal of DOC by MF, the biofilter removed all microorganisms. The use of biofilters as pretreatment to MF/UF could remove a higher amount of DOC, remove microorganisms, increase the membrane treatment efficiency, and reduce membrane fouling.

Aryal, R., Legegue, J., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Heran, M. & Grasmick, A. 2009, 'Identification and characterisation of biofilm formed in membrane bioreactor', Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 86-94.
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Experiments were conducted in a laboratory scale membrane bio-reactor (MBR) system equipped with a side stream flat sheet membrane. Six runs lasting different durations (2, 4, 6, 9, 15 and 20 days) were conducted at an aeration rate of 2 m3 h-1 m-2 to understand the temporal variation of chemistry of foulant that attached on the membrane surface. The foulant attached on the membrane surface was extracted with 0.5% (v/v) NaOH solution and the extract was analysed using fluorescent spectroscopy and size exclusion chromatography. Variation of low- and high-molecular weight substances with evolution of time was compared. The results showed that the nature of foulant changed with the evolution of time. Four runs conducted for a short duration (2, 4, 6 and 9 days), low-molecular weight substances were dominant in the foulant whereas for long duration runs (15 and 20 days), high-molecular weight substances were mainly observed. Moreover, the foulant close to the membrane surface contained mainly protein and soluble microbial by-products.

Aryal, R., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S., Naidu, R. & Lee, S.H. 2009, 'Review of Stormwater quality, Quantity and Treatment Methods Part 1', Environmental Engineering Research, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 71-78.
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A review of stormwater quantity and quality in the urban environment is presented. The review is presented in three parts. The first part reviews the mathematical methods for stormwater quantity and has been undertaken by examining a number of stormwater models that are in current use. The important feature of models, their applications, and management has been discussed. Different types of stormwater management models are presented in the literatures. Generally, all the models are simplified as conceptual or empirical depending on whether the model is based on physical laws or not. In both cases if any of the variables in the model are regarded as random variables having a probability distribution, then the model is stochastic model. Otherwise the model is deterministic (based on process descriptions). The analytical techniques are presented in this paper.

Aryal, R., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S., Naidu, R. & Lee, S. 2009, 'Review of Stormwater Quality, Quantity and Treatment Methods Part 2: Stormwater: Quality Modelling', Environmental Engineering Research, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 143-149.
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In this paper, review of stormwater quality and quantity in the urban environment is presented. The review is presented in three parts. This second part reviews the mathematical techniques used in stormwater quality modelling and has been undertaken by examining a number of models that are in current use. The important features of models are discussed.

Aryal, R., Lebegue, J., Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Grasmick, A. 2009, 'Temporal variation of foulant characteristics in membrane bioreactor', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 6, no. 1-3, pp. 69-73.
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Many studies have been performed to analyse the influence of compounds present in different fractions of the membrane foulants. The aim of this study was to reveal the changing chemistry of compounds present in membrane foulant with the evolution of time. Membrane fouling in a side stream membrane bioreactor (MBR) reactor was investigated. Constant flux filtration was employed in an MBR operation. Air bubbles were injected at 2 m3 h 1 m 2 for six different durations (2, 4, 6, 9, 15 and 20 days) of MBR operation. The foulant on the membrane surface was extracted using NaOH solution (5%) and analysed using fluorescent spectroscopy. The spectra showed the changing chemistry of foulant with the evolution of time. It showed low molecular weight substances such as amino acids and small aromatic proteins were dominant in the foulant at the beginning of the experiment but its concentration decreased with time. On the other hand BOD5 type substances concentration increased with time from the beginning of the experiment up to 9 days and there after decreased. The concentration of larger molecular weight soluble microbial by-products increased with evolution of time. Air bubbles at two aeration rate of 1m3 h 1m 2 and 2 m3 h 1 m 2 were also injected from the bottom of the membrane tanks to produce shear stresses on the membrane surface during 5 days of MBR operation to compare the effect of aeration in fouling propensity.

Chanan, A.P., Kandasamy, J.K., Vigneswaran, S. & Sharma, D. 2009, 'A gradualist approach to address Australia's urban water challenge', Desalination, vol. 249, no. 3, pp. 1012-1016.
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There is growing consensus worldwide against the conventional centralised approach to water management, and a Ô++soft pathÔ++ for water management has emerged as a sustainable alternative. A Ô++soft pathÔ++ for water management emphasizes the optimization of end-use efficiency, small-scaled management systems, incorporates fit-for-purpose water use, and recommends the use of diverse, locally appropriate and commonly decentralised infrastructures. However, large-scale desalination plants are currently being built for almost all metropolitan centres in Australia to ensure water supply security. Unlike Ô++soft pathÔ++ for water management, large-scale desalination plants embody the traditional urban water supply approach. In spite of knowledge and values relating to the water cycle having shifted towards Ô++soft pathÔ++, the old organisational framework is believed to be hindering its adoption. Perhaps, therefore major water utilities in recent times have opted for the ideologically easier option of large-scale desalination conforming to the existing framework, instead of choosing a Ô++soft pathÔ++ for water management with potential for decentralised management. This paper critically reviews the urban water management direction in metropolitan Australia and puts forward a Ô++gradualist approachÔ++. It incorporates a comprehensive non-potable water reuse program necessary to build the familiarity and trust in water reuse, as a first step before introducing the idea of potable reuse.

Chinu, K.J., Johir, M.H., Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Biofilter as pretreatment to membrane based desalination: Evaluation in terms of fouling index', Desalination, vol. 247, no. 1-3, pp. 77-84.
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The removal of particulate matter and dissolved organic matter from seawater by the use of biofiltration was investigated. Granular activated carbon (GAC) and anthracite were used as biofilter media at two different filtration velocities. Filtrate quality was measured in terms of silt density index (SDI), modified fouling index (MFI) and turbidity removal. Reverse osmosis (RO) was used as a post-treatment. Both biofilters demonstrated similar fouling reduction behavior in terms of SDI and MFI. Fouling potential in terms of MFI values decreased to 10 s/L2 within the first 10Ô++15 days of operation and kept constant up to the remaining experimental period of 55 days of operation for both GAC and anthracite biofilter. The filtrate turbidity was steady after 10 days and remained low at a value of 0.2Ô++0.3 NTU and 0.28Ô++0.31 NTU for anthracite and GAC biofilter, respectively. Furthermore, the headloss development was low and within 20 cm for biofilter operated at a low velocity of 5 m/h. A post-treatment of reverse osmosis after a pretreatment of GAC and anthracite biofilters showed a reduction in normalized flux decline (J/J0) from 0.22 to 0.12 and 0.35 to 0.21 during the first 20 h, respectively. The RO flux for seawater declined at a faster rate and continued even after 3 days when no pretreatment was provided.

El Saliby, I., Okour, Y., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Kim, I.S. 2009, 'Desalination plants in Australia, review and facts', Desalination, vol. 247, no. 1-3, pp. 1-14.
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Australia is the driest continent on earth and despite this the installed desalination capacity is still around 1% of the total world's desalination capacity. This paper reviews the main seawater issues considered in every desalination projectÔ++the history, the present situation and the future of desalination in Australia, the suitability of applying reverse osmosis (RO) and the project details of two desalination plants (Sydney and Perth). Ocean currents, seawater temperature and salinity are signifi cant indicators in the assessment of the feasibility of desalination as they aff ect the production costs, the maintenance frequency and the quality of the product water. Seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) is the only type of desalination technology currently used or proposed for future large-scale desalination plants in Australia. Every capital city except Darwin has considered building at least one desalination plant as a means of providing water security after several years of unprecedented drought that has signifi cantly reduced dam storage levels. Perth was the fi rst major city to use desalinated water for drinking water supply and by early 2009 Sydney will be the second city. Thirteen other large-scale SWRO plants are being planned or proposed at several locations for the purpose of supplying drinking water.

El Saliby, I., Okour, Y., Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Kim, J.H. 2009, 'Detailed Investigation on the Effect of Washing TiO2 Prepared from Ti-salts Flocculated Wastewater Sludge', Journal of Advanced Oxidation Technologies, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 194-201.
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In this study, the effect of washing TiO2 produced from flocculated sludge was investigated. Produced TiO2 was washed with HCl, NaOH and Milli-Q-water and the washed TiO2 was then characterized in terms of X-ray diffraction imaging, scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive using X-ray analysis and surface area. Washed TiO2 was tested for adsorption and photocatalytic oxidation of acetaldehyde, and the decomposition of organics from synthetic wastewater (SWW) in terms of total organic carbon (TOC) and absorbance at UV-254. Results revealed that the anatase structure was dominant and TiO2 was mainly doped with C atoms. The surface area of TiO2 generated form TiCl4 flocculation was found to be twice larger than the TiO2 generated from Ti(SO4)2 flocculation. Acid and base washings of TiO2 improved its photocatalytic ability in decomposing acetaldehyde under UV-irradiation. Similarly, acid, base and Milli-Q water washings of TiO2 were better in reducing TOC and humic acids from SWW.

Johir, M.H., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Deep bed filter as pre-treatment to stormwater', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 12, no. 1-3, pp. 313-323.
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This paper presents the results of experiments on the application of dual media and single media deep bed filters as pre-treatments to stormwater. In-line flocculation-filtration experiments were conducted with dual and single media filter. The single filter media (80 cm) consisted of either anthracite or sand, and the dual media filter consisted of sand (40 cm at the bottom) and anthracite (40 cm on top). Filtration velocities of 5 m/h, 10 m/h and 15 m/h were examined. The removal efficiency for turbidity, suspended solids and TOC was found to be 95%, 99% and 30Ô++45% respectively at a flocculant dose of FeCl3 of 15 mg/L. The anthracite filter media showed a lower headloss development (26 cm, operated at 5 m/h filtration velocity with FeCl3 dose of 5 mg/L). The removal efficiency for nitrogen was lower than phosphorus which was relatively good (up to 50%). The removal efficiency for heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, Cr and Ni was found to be very low for all tested filtration systems because concentrations of these metals in the influent were also low. This filter can be used as a pretreatment to a membrane filter as the modified fouling index was reduced from 750 s/L2 (for stormwater) to 15 s/L2 (for filtered effluent). Detailed submerged membrane filter experiments conducted with pre-treated water showed that the membrane filter can be successfully be used as post-treatment to in-line flocculant-filter at a sustainable flux of 10 L/m2.h to remove the remaining solids and pathogens. An increase of air scouring in the membrane unit decreased the pressure development although it did not have any effect on increasing the critical flux beyond 10 L/m2.h.

Johir, M.H., Lee, J., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Shaw, K. 2009, 'Treatment of Stormwater using Fibre Filter Media', Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus, vol. 9, no. 5-6, pp. 439-447.
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In this study, a high-rate fibre filter was used as a pre-treatment to stormwater in conjunction with in-line flocculation. The effect of operating the fibre filter with different packing densities (105, 115 and 125 kg/m3) and filtration velocities (20, 40, 60 m/h) with and without in-line flocculation was investigated. In-line flocculation was provided using 5, 10 and 15 mg/L of ferric chloride (FeCl3-À6H2O). The filter performance was studied in terms of pressure drop (++P), solids removal efficiency, heavy metals (total) removal efficiency and total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency. It is found that the use of in-line flocculation at a dose of 15 mg/L improved the performance of fibre filter as measured by turbidity removal (95%), total suspended solids reduction (98%), colour removal efficiency (99%), TOC removal (reduced by 30Ô++40 %) and total coliform removal (93%). The modified fouling index reduced from 750Ô++950 to 12 s/L2 proving that fibre filter can be an excellent pre-treatment to membrane filtration that may be consider as post-treatment. The removal efficiency of heavy metal was variable as their concentration in raw water was small. Even though the concentration of some of these metals such as iron, aluminium, copper and zinc were reduced, others like nickel, chromium and cadmium showed lower removal rates

Kus, B.G. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Low-Cost Filtration System to Treat First-Flush Stormwater', Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus, vol. 9, no. 5-6, pp. 347-355.
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The aim of this paper is to evaluate the performance of the low-flow filtration system (LFFS) that Kogarah Municipal Council developed for treating and reusing the highly polluted first-flush stormwater (FFSW) while allowing the cleaner subsequent major stormwater flows to be directed to the major street drainage. The LFFS was evaluated through laboratory investigations using columns packed with different filter media to test the removal efficiency of pollutants such as zinc (Zn), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), total organic content, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and turbidity. The findings from this study demonstrate the effectiveness of the LFFS to largely reduce turbidity, TPH, and trace metals from the FFSW. The LFFS also partially removes dissolved organics, TP and TN. These pollutants are more commonly and effectively removed in subsequent processes of a stormwater treatment train. Further this paper highlights the importance of regular maintenance of the LFFS especially as it is only associated in removing the high pollutant loads during a storm event. Due to this first flush, a thick oily crust-formed layer requires monthly removal, and an entire replacement of the exhausted filter media is required quarterly. However considering the labor required to service the crust formed layer within the LFFS, it is more cost effective to replace the entire depth of filter media monthly.

Lee, J., Johir, M.A., Chinu, K.J., Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Kim, C.W. & Shaw, K. 2009, 'Hybrid filtration method for pre-treatment of seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO)', Desalination, vol. 247, no. 1-3, pp. 15-24.
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Hybrid processes combining fi bre fi lter with deep bed fi ltration process such as (i) fi bre fi lter and sand fi lter, (ii) fi bre fi lter and anthracite and (iii) fi bre fi lter and dual media fi lter were investigated as pre- treatments to SWRO. Seawater was drawn from Chowder Bay, Sydney. The eff ect of diff erent pretreatment hybrid systems was investigated in terms of silt density index (SDI10), modifi ed fouling index (MFI), headloss across the fi lters and reduction in turbidity and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). The in-line fl occulation in fi bre fi lter improved the performance of the pretreatment hybrid system as measured by the MFI, SDI10, headloss, turbidity and DOC removal. The lowest SDI10 and MFI were found with a fi bre fi lter operated at a fi ltration velocity of 40 m/h followed by dual media fi lter operated at a fi ltration velocity of 5 m/h. The lowest headloss and turbidity was found with a fi bre fi lter operated at a fi ltration velocity of 40 m/hr followed by anthracite operated at a fi ltration velocity of 5 m/h. This system also gave an effl uent with the lowest DOC of 0.64 mg/L corresponding to a removal effi ciency of about 70%.

Mohammed Abdul, J., Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H., Areerachakul, N. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Comparison of granular activated carbon bio-sorption and advanced oxidation processes in the treatment of leachate effluent', Korean Journal Of Chemical Engineering, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 724-730.
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Nguyen, T.V., Nguyen, T., Pham, T.L., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K., Nguyen, H. & Nguyen, T.D. 2009, 'Adsorption and removal of arsenic from water by iron ore mining waste', Water Science and Technology, vol. 60, no. 9, pp. 2301-2308.
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There is a global need to develop low-cost technologies to remove arsenic from water for individual household water supply. In this study, a purified and enriched waste material (treated magnetite waste, TMW) from the Trai Cau's iron ore mine in the Thai Nguyen Province in Vietnam was examined for its capacity to remove arsenic. The treatment system was packed with TMW that consisted of 75% of ferrous-ferric oxide (Fe3O4) and had a large surface area of 89.7 m2/g. The experiments were conducted at a filtration rate of 0.05 m/h to treat groundwater with an arsenic concentration of 380 mg/L and iron, manganese and phosphate concentrations of 2.07 mg/L, 0.093 mg/L and 1.6 mg/L respectively. The batch experimental results show that this new material was able to absorb up to 0.74 mg arsenic/g. The results also indicated that the treatment system removed more than 90% arsenic giving an effluent with an arsenic concentration of less than 30 mg/L while achieving a removal efficiency of about 80% for Mn2 + and PO43-. This could be a promising and cost-effective new material for capturing arsenic as well as other metals from groundwater

Nguyen, T.V., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Shon, H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Arsenic removal by a membrane hybrid filtration system', Desalination, vol. 236, no. 1-3, pp. 363-369.
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Arsenic is a toxic semi-metallic element that can be fatal to human health. Membrane filtration can remove a number of contaminants from water, including arsenic. Removal of arsenic by membrane filtration is highly dependent on the species of arsenic and the properties of the membrane. The performance of the nanofilter is better for removing As(V) than As(III). About 57% of As(III) and 81% of As(V) was removed from 500 mg/L arsenic solutions by nanofiltration (NTR729HF, Nitto Denko Corp., Japan) of 700 molecular weight (MW) cutoff. The removal efficiency of microfiltration (MF) was much lower than that of nanofiltration (NF) due to its larger pore size. By comparison only 37% of As(III) and 40% of As(V) were removed by microfiltration (PVA membrane, Pure-Envitech, Korea). However, the removal efficiency of microfiltration was increased dramatically when a small amount of nanoscale zero valent iron (nZVI) was added. The removal efficiency by MF increased up to 90% with As(V) and 84% with As(III) when an amount of 0.1 g/L of nZVI was added into the arsenic solution.

Nguyen, T.V., Rahman, A., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K., Nguyen, T.D., Do, A.T. & Nguyen, K.T. 2009, 'Arsenic removal by iron oxide coated sponge: treatment and waste management', Water Science and Technology, vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 1489-1495.
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One of the problems in drinking water that raises concern over the world is that millions of people still have to use arsenic-contaminated water. There is a worldwide need to develop appropriate technologies to remove arsenic from water for household and community water supply systems. In this study, a new material namely iron oxide coated sponge (IOCSp) was developed and used to remove arsenic (As) from contaminated groundwater in Vietnam. The results indicated that IOCSp has a high capacity in removing both As (V) and As (III). The adsorption capacity of IOCSp was up to 4.6mg As/g IOCSp, showing better than many other materials. It was observed from a pilot study that a small quantity of IOCSp (180 g) could reduce As concentration of 480mg/L in 1.5m3 of contaminated natural water to below 40 mg/L. In addition, an exhausted IOCSp, containing a large amount of arsenic (up to 0.42 wt %) could safely be disposed through the solidification/stabilization with cement. Addition of fly ash also reduced the amount of arsenic in the leachate.

Pezzaniti, D., Beecham, S.C. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Influence of clogging on the effective life of permeable pavements', Water Management, vol. 162, no. 3, pp. 211-220.
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This paper investigates the 'effective life' (or useful lifespan) of permeable pavement installations subject to sediment loadings. The broad aims of this study, which included both laboratory and field work components, were to improve understanding of the long-term pavement hydraulic conductivity, to assess the effective life of permeable pavements and to quantify the degree of sediment trapping and associated pollutant retention. Three types of permeable pavement were investigated. For each type the effects of pavement cleaning were also investigated. Over a simulated 35 years of sediment loading conducted in the laboratory, the results showed reductions of 59-75% in hydraulic conductivity with an average sediment retention of 94%. Suspended sediment concentrations measured at the outflow of the laboratory test beds did not show any significant difference between pavers that were subjected to cleaning and those that were not. For the field studies presented in this paper, hydraulic conductivities were very high in locations where permeable pavements are subjected to small to moderate sediment loads. At other locations with high coarse sediment and organic sediment loads, hydraulic conductivity tests indicated that clogging occurred at a rapid rate, particularly where runoff. owing onto the pavement was concentrated

Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Kim, J.B., Park, H.J., Choi, S. & Kim, J.H. 2009, 'Preparation of titanium oxide, iron oxide, and aluminium oxide from sludge generated from Ti-salt, Fe-salt and Al-salt flocculation of wastewater', Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 719-723.
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In this study, the settled floc (sludge) produced by aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3), ferric chloride (FeCl3) and titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) flocculation was recycled with a novel flocculation process, which has a significant potential to the lower cost of waste disposal, protect the environment and public health and yield economically useful by-products. Three coagulants removed 70% of organic matter in synthetic wastewater. The settled floc was incinerated in the range from 100 8C to 1000 8C. Alumina (Al2O3), hematite (Fe2O3), titanium oxide (TiO2) which are the most widely used metal oxides were produced from the wastewater sludge generated by the flocculation in wastewater with Al2(SO4)3, FeCl3 and TiCl4, respectively. TiO2 particles produced from the sludge consisted of the large amount of nano size particles. Hematite (Fe2O3) and grattarolaite (Fe3 (PO4)O3 or Fe3PO7) included the majority of micro size (40%) particles. Alumina (Al2O3) also consisted of micro size (40%). Due to TiO2 usefulness of the application, detailed characterisation of TiO2 after calcination at different temperatures were investigated in terms of X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray, surface area and photoactivity.

Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K., Zareie, H.M., Kim, J.B., Cho, D.L. & Kim, J.H. 2009, 'Preparation and Characterisation of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) from Sludge produced by TiCl4 Flocculation with FeCl3, Al2(SO4)3 and Ca(OH)2 Coagulant Aids in Wastewater', Separation Science and Technology, vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 1525-1543.
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In this study, TiCl4 coagulant together with coagulant aids such as FeCl3, Al2(SO4)3, and Ca(OH)2 were investigated to improve the photoactivity of titanium dioxide (TiO2) produced from sludge and to increase the resulting low pH value. After TiCl4 flocculation with three coagulant aids, the settled floc (sludge) was incinerated at 600-¦C to produce TiO2 doped with Fe, Al, and Ca elements. Fe-, Al-, and Ca-doped TiO2 was characterized in terms of structural, chemical, and photo-electronic properties. All the coagulant aids used together with Ti-salt flocculation effectively increased the pH values. The surface area of TiO2-WO (without any coagulant aids), Fe/TiO2, Al/TiO2, and Ca/TiO2 was 122 m2/g, 77 m2/g, 136 m2/g and 116 m2/g, respectively. The TiO2-WO, Fe/TiO2, Al/TiO2, and Ca/TiO2 was found to be of anatase phase. The XRD pattern on the Fe/TiO2 included an additional peak of hematite (+¦-Fe2O3). The majority of gaseous acetaldehyde with TiO2-WO and Ca/TiO2 for photocatalytic activity was completely removed within 40 minutes under UV irradiation.

Singh, G. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Evaluating performance and effectiveness of water sensitive urban design', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 11, no. 1-3, pp. 144-150.
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Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) is something of a catch-all term for environmentally sustainable water resource management in urban areas. Water sensitive urban design offers an alternative to the traditional conveyance approach to stormwater management. It seeks to minimise the extent of impervious surfaces and mitigate changes to the natural water balance, through on-site reuse of water as well as through temporary storage. By integrating major and minor fl ow paths in the landscape and adopting a range of water sensitive design techniques, the size of the structural stormwater system required can be signifi cantly reduced. WSUD techniques include detention and retention basins to lower peak fl ows, grassed swales and vegetation to facilitate water infi ltration and pollutant fi ltration. WSUD has been adopted widely in Australia and is being implemented in varied local government areas. The major challenge to the success of WSUD is however its measure of effectiveness over the life cycle given that it demands high maintenance. The aim of this paper is to provide a snapshot of effectiveness of WSUD implemented in Kogarah Municipal Council using two case studies and presents results on improvement in water quality through both site specifi c and water quality monitoring of the bays.

Zhang, R., Chinu, K.J., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Submerged microfiltration coupled with physico-chemical processes as pretreatment to sea water desalination', Desalination and Water Treatment, vol. 11, no. 1-3, pp. 52-57.
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In this study, the critical fl ux of the submerged membrane system was experimentally evaluated when it was used for seawater with and without pre-treatment. In this study, different processes such as fl occulation with ferric chloride (FeCl3) and different doses of PAC adsorption were used as a pre-treatment. The pretreatment of fl occulant of 2 mg/L of FeCl3 and adsorption with the dose of 1 g/L PAC showed an improvement in the critical fl ux from 5 L/m2.h to 6.7 L/m2.h and 13.3 L/m2.h respectively. The performance of these pretreatments was also determined in terms of modifi ed fouling index using ultrafi lter membrane (UF-MFI). UF-MFI and SDI indicated that PAC adsorption was a better pretreatment than fl occulation for the seawater used in this study. Molecular weight distribution (MWD) of seawater organic matter was also examined after different pretreatments. MWD of the raw seawater was mainly in the range from 1510 to 130 Da. It is observed that FeCl3 fl occulation and PAC adsorption as pretreatments partially removed the organic matter of 1510 Da and 130Da respectively

Areerachakul, N., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Duangduen, C. 2008, 'The degradation of humic substance using continuous photocatalysis systems', Separation Science And Technology, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 93-112.
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Photocatalytic oxidation is an emerging technology in water and wastewater treatment. Photocatalysis often leads to complete degradation of organic pollutants without the need for chemicals. This study investigated the degradation of humic substances in

Areerachakul, N., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2008, 'A continuous photocatalysis system in the degradation of herbicide', Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 663-669.
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The performance of both batch and continuous photo-catalytic reactors was studied to evaluate their capabilities in removing the sulfonyl urea herbicide of metsulfuron methyl (MM). It was found in a batch reactor that the addition of a small amount of powder activated carbon (PAC) significantly increased the rate of degradation of MM. The continuous photo-catalytic system resulted in 57% of MM removal. When a small dose of activated carbon was added in the photo-catalytic system, MM removal increased to 78+86% MM removal for retention times between of 5.25+21 min (corresponding to withdrawal rates of 10+40 mLmin-1). In this study, the pseudo first order rate constants of a continuous photo-catalytic system revealed that shorter retention times were associated with lower rate constants. Solid phase micro extraction/gas chromatography (SPME/GC) results showed that high concentrations of MM were broken down to small volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by photo-catalytic oxidation. PAC adsorbed the photo-products and increased the degradation of MM.

Aryal, R., Lee, B., Karki, R., Gurung, A., Kandasamy, J.K., Pathak, B., Sharma, S. & Giri, N. 2008, 'Seasonal PM10 dynamics in Kathmandu valley', Atmospheric Environment, vol. 42, no. 37, pp. 8623-8633.
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Data on ambient PM10 levels from six locations in the Kathmandu Valley recorded by means of continuous sampling using low volume air samplers from October 2002 to March 2007 were used to investigate PM10 concentration dynamics in the valley. Monthly average data of the urban areas, which have much higher concentrations than the rural areas, even exceeded the daily standard level of PM10, in Nepal, 120 ?m m-3. Repetitive peaks and troughs each year indicated annual patterns. Monthly average showed seasonal patterns are different between rural area and urban sites. The highest monthly average concentration was observed in February, the end of winter in urban areas where as in rural found in spring, and the lowest concentration was observed in July (monsoon period). The continuous increase in PM10 concentration from December to February in urban areas showed accumulation of PM10 in the ambient air during the wintertime. Rainfall in June and September, during the monsoon period, caused a PM10 concentration decrease, demonstrating that precipitation is effective in removing PM10 from the valley. Cross correlation analyses among the PM10 levels measured simultaneously at the sampling stations showed a poor relationship in winter; however, there were good relationships in the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Both the PM10 concentration and the air-mixing environment in the valley were closely associated with the temperature and wind speed.

Chang, J.S., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Tsai, L.J. 2008, 'Effect of Pore Size and Particle Size Distribution on Granular Bed Filtration and Microfiltration', Separation Science and Technology, vol. 43, no. 7, pp. 1771-1784.
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The paper reviews the effect of particle size distribution and pore size distribution on granular bed filter and crossflow microfiltration performance. The experimental results of the granular bed filter with pollen particles in suspension showed that the presence of large particles improved the filter efficiency of smaller particles in suspension. Microfiltration results with bi and tri-modal latex suspensions showed that the permeate flux and the quality were significantly affected by the particle size and its distribution, especially when the particle size was smaller than the pore size of the membrane. The mathematical model simulation results of granular bed filtration show that media pore size distribution is an important parameter of filtration for the particle removal and pressure drop across the filter

Chang, Y., Chang, J.S., Vigneswaran, S. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2008, 'Pharmaceutical Wastewater Treatment by Membrane Bioreactor Process - A Case Study in Southern Taiwan', Desalination, vol. 234, no. 1-3, pp. 393-401.
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A pilot-scale study of pharmaceutical wastewater treatment by a membrane bioreactor (MBR) process in southern Taiwan is presented in this paper. A 10 m3/day capacity MBR plant consisting of an aeration tank and a membrane bioreactor was installed to remove organic matter (measured in terms of chemical oxygen demand (COD)). The performance of the MBR was monitored for a period of 140 days. The removal of COD was on average over 95%. The effluent did not contain any suspended solids. During the 140 days of operation, manual cleaning was carried out twice and chemical cleaning was carried out once. A natural logarithmic evolution of the viscosity with TSS concentration was observed. The results of SEM and EDX demonstrated that the fouling on the membrane outer surface was mainly due to microorganisms and/or the sludge physiological properties. The results indicated that the MBR system has potential as a means of treating high-strength and fluctuating strength wastewater with consistent performance.

Guo, W., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Yoon, S. 2008, 'The role of a membrane performance enhancer in a membrane bioreactor: a comparison with other submerged membrane hybrid systems', Desalination, vol. 231, pp. 305-313.
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Among the membrane processes, membrane bioreactor (MBR) technologies are becoming an innovative and promising option for wastewater treatment and reuse. In this study the performance of the submerged membrane bioreactor was studied with an addition of MPE50, and it was compared against a sponge submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) and submerged membrane adsorption bioreactor (SMABR) in terms of TOC removal, COD removal, ammonium nitrogen (NH4-H) removal, orthophosphate (PO4-P) removal, transmembrane pressure (TMP) and oxygen uptake rate. SMBR with MPE50 addition significantly improved the sustainable flux and reduced membrane fouling. The improvement was better than even in the sponge SMBR system. SMBR with MPE50 achieved a high DOC and COD removal efficiency and NH4-N removal. PO4-P removal concentration of 62% initially which increased with time to over 99% after 7 day operation. In terms of phosphorus removal the sponge SMBR system performed better. OU measurements showed that there was more microbial activity in the SMBR with MPE50 system.

Guo, W., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Yoon, S. 2008, 'The Role of Membrane Performance Enhancer in a Membrane Bioreactor: a Comparison with Other Submerged Membrane Hybrid Systems', Desalination, vol. 231, no. 1-3, pp. 305-313.
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Among the membrane processes, membrane bioreactor (MBR) technologies are becoming an innovative and promising option for wastewater treatment and reuse. In this study the performance of the submerged membrane bioreactor was studied with an addition of MPE50, and it was compared against a sponge submerged membrane bioreactor (SMBR) and submerged membrane adsorption bioreactor (SMABR) in terms of TOC removal, COD removal, ammonium nitrogen (NH4-H) removal, orthophosphate (PO4-P) removal, transmembrane pressure (TMP) and oxygen uptake rate. SMBR with MPE50 addition significantly improved the sustainable flux and reduced membrane fouling. The improvement was better than even in the sponge SMBR system. SMBR with MPE50 achieved a high DOC and COD removal efficiency and NH4-N removal. PO4-P removal concentration of 62% initially which increased with time to over 99% after 7 day operation. In terms of phosphorus removal the sponge SMBR system performed better. OUR measurements showed that there was more microbial activity in the SMBR with MPE50 system

Hoang, T., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K., Shim, W.G., Chaudhary, D.S., Gotety, B.P. & Peiris, P. 2008, 'Performance evaluation and mathematical modelling of granular activated carbon biofiltration in wastewater treatment', Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 259-267.
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Biological filtration is an effective technique for removing organic matter from wastewater. The performance of a biofilter can be influenced by a range of operational conditions. In this study the performance of biofilters was investigated for the influence of filter media depth, influent concentrations, filtrations rates and backwashing. The results show that performance of GAC filters decreased with shallower filter bed depths. In addition, the GAC performed better at lower influent concentration and lower filtration rates. The daily backwash adopted to avoid the physical clogging of the biofilter did not have any significant effect on the organic removal efficiency of the filter. The concentration, activity and characteristics of the biomass are quantified and described. A mathematical model was developed to simulate the organic removal of the GAC biofiltration system. The performance of the GAC filter under different influent organic concentration levels, filtration rates and filter bed depths was adequately simulated by the mathematical model developed for this study.

Kandasamy, J.K., Beecham, S.C. & Dunphy, A.J. 2008, 'Stormwater sand filters in water sensitive urban design', Water Management - Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 161, no. WM2, pp. 55-64.
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This paper investigates the suitability of sand filters for harvesting and treating stormwater for non-potable reuse purposes. A stormwater sand filtration device was constructed in a small urban catchment in Sydney, Australia. A sand filter is typically used in water-sensitive urban design (WSUD) as a component of a treatment train to remove pollution from stormwater before discharge to receiving waters, to groundwater or for collection and reuse. This paper describes an 18 month field study undertaken to determine the effectiveness and pollutant removal efficiency of a sand filter, and the differences in the pollutant removal efficiency of two grades of sand. A comparison of pollutant removal with previous literature on sand filters showed similar efficiencies but nutrient removal was higher than expected. A further unexpected result was that the coarse filter media performed as well as the fine media for most pollutant types and was superior in suspended solids removal. Improved modelling equations for predicting suspended solids and total phosphorus removal in sand filters are also presented in this paper.

Kannapiran, A., Chanan, A.P., Singh, G., Tambosis, P., Jeyakumaran, J.M. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2008, 'Strategic asset management planning of stormwater drainage systems', Water Practice & Technology, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 1-8.
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Management of the urban water cycle in an integrated manner is an essential task to protect, restore and enhance in a sustainable manner. Strategic asset management planing is being developed as local government authorities face many challenges associated with managing the urban water cycle system. Statistical or conventional mathematical modelling approach has been found not practical for assessment of deteriorating infrastructures. Alternatively, application of fuzzy-based models is found more suitable as it links engineering judgment, experience and scarce field data of the deteriorating assets. In this study, a representative network of buried stormwater system's data is drawn and a pipe condition index is derived by linking the field data and reasoning using fuzzy approach. The inferred results are found to be useful and relevant for asset maintenance and future development programs.

Nguyen, T.V., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Choi, H. 2008, 'Arsenic removal by photo-catalysis hybrid system', Separation and Purification Technology, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 44-50.
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Arsenic is a toxic semi-metallic element that can be fatal to human health. Arsenic pollution in water is found in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries such as Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Vietnam. Photo-oxidation experiments with titanium dioxide (TiO2) as photo-catalyst showed that photo-oxidation of As(III) to As(V) is possible within minutes. Further, TiO2 can also adsorb both As(III) and As(V) on its surface. Photo-catalysis reaction with TiO2 reduced about 98% of arsenite from water containing 500 ?g/L of arsenite. By adding nano-scale zero valent iron (nZVI) of 0.05 g/L in the photo-reactor, arsenic removal can be significantly enhanced. Further the TiO2 requirement is five times less in this photo-catalysis nZVI hybrid system. The photo-catalytic degradation processes was modeled using the first-order, second-order and Langmuir+Hinshelwood kinetics equations and removal rates were simulated.

Sabina, L., Kus, B.G., Shon, H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2008, 'Membrane fouling propensity after adsorption as pretreatment in rainwater: a detailed organic characterisation', Water Science And Technology, vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 1535-1539.
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Organic characterisation in rainwater was investigated in terms of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and molecular weight distribution (MWD) after powdered activated carbon (PAC) adsorption. PAC adsorption was used as pretreatment to membrane filtration to

Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Kandasamy, J.K. & Shim, W.G. 2008, 'Ultraflitration Of Wastewater With Pretreatment: Evaluation of Flux Decline Models', Desalination, vol. 231, no. 1-3, pp. 332-339.
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Three different mathematical models relating the flux decline were investigated to quantify the effects of pretreatment in a membrane filtration system. The models used are empirical flux decline model, series resistance flux decline model and modified series resistance flux decline model. A cross flow ultrafiltration unit was used to study flux decline and organic removal from synthetic wastewater. Flocculation and adsorption pretreatments were carried out with ferric chloride (FeCl3) and activated carbon of different doses. The three models could predict flux decline after different pretreatments and could be used as a pretreatment index to ultrafiltration.

Areerachakul, N., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2007, 'Granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption-photocatalysis hybrid system in the removal of herbicide from water', Separation And Purification Technology, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 206-211.
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The performance of the granular activated carbon (GAC) fixed bed adsorption, the continuous photocatalysis systems and a combination of the two were studied to evaluate their capabilities in removing the herbicide of metsulfuron-methyl (MM) from waste wa

Kannapiran, A., Chanan, A.P., Singh, G., Tambosis, P., Jeyakumaran, J.M. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2007, 'An innovative model for sustainable cost effective management of stormwater drainage assets', Water Asset Management International, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 4-11.
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Stormwater drainage is one of the important infrastructures of any modern urban city. A well planned, operated and maintained stormwater system should drain stormwater runoff effectively during normal periods and during floods. However, with rapidly expanding cities, unanticipated problems from changinf land usage, system overloading, pollution and deteriorating environment cause problems to stormwater assets and contribute to its failure. These issues are more problematic in larger and older cities where replacement is costly. Kogarah Council, a local government authority in Sydney, Australia, is anticipated to face many of the challenges this problem poses as it manages the urban water cycle system in an integrated manner to protect, restore and enhance the stormwater assets. The council owns a significant part of these assets that were constructed back in the 1930s.

Khiadani, M.H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Beecham, S.C. 2007, 'Velocity distributions in spatially varied flow with increasing discharge', Journal Of Hydraulic Engineering-Asce, vol. 133, no. 7, pp. 721-735.
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The experimental study presented in this paper explores the distribution of the mean velocities for a channel receiving spatially varied (SV) inflow from directly above the centerline of the channel via sets of nozzles. The velocity components u, 1), and

Shon, H., Vigneswaran, S., Ngo, H.H., Kim, J.K. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2007, 'Effect Of Flocculation As A Pretreatment To Photocatalysis In The Removal Of Organic Matter From Wastewater', Separation And Purification Technology, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 388-391.
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Effects of different flocculants (chloride-based salts and ferric and ferrous salts) and initial organic concentration of wastewater on flocculation-photocatalysis hybrid process were investigated. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) adsorption alone, flocculation a

Vigneswaran, S., Shon, H., Kandasamy, J.K. & Shim, W.G. 2007, 'Performance of Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) adsorption and biofiltration in the treatment of biologically treated sewage effluent', Separation Science and Technology, vol. 42, no. 14, pp. 3101-3116.
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In this study, the performance of GAC adsorption and biofiltration systems in treating biological treated sewage effluent (BTSE) was evaluated in terms of organic removal efficiency, organic fractions, and molecular weight distribution (MW) of organic matter (OM) removed. The GAC biofilter removed 23.5% and 61% of the hydrophobic fractions and hydrophilic fractions of OM in the BTSE respectively. MW distribution studies of GAC filter and GAC adsorption revealed the following: Hydrophobic fraction of the effluent showed a peak at 345 dalton after GAC biofiltration and 256 dalton after GAC adsorption, whereas, with hydrophilic fractions, peaks at 46,178 and 345 daltons were observed after GAC biofiltration and peaks at 46,178 and 256 daltons after GAC adsorption. Transphilic fraction showed the peaks at 12,783 dalton with GAC biofiltration, and 1,463 dalton with GAC adsorption. The performance of the GAC biofilter was successfully mathematically modelled.

Beecham, S.C., Khiadani, M.H. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2005, 'Friction factors for spatially varied flow with increasing discharge', Journal Of Hydraulic Engineering-ASCE, vol. 131, no. 9, pp. 792-799.
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This paper describes an experimental investigation of how friction factors change for spatially varied flow in sloping channels receiving lateral inflow. The results are compared with those of Beij in 1934, and it is concluded that uniform flow resistanc

Beecham, S.C., Kandasamy, J.K., Khiadani, M.H. & Trinh, D.V. 2005, 'Impacts of OSD on Flooding within an Urban Catchment', Journal of Urban Water, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 23-32.
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Beecham, S.C., Kandasamy, J.K., Khiadani, M.H. & Trinh, D.V. 2005, 'Modelling on-site detention on a catchment-wide basis', Journal of Urban Water, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 23-32.
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Sydney, Australia, has a stormwater system that is completely separate from the sewerage system. The stormwater systems are mainly managed by the 43 local councils and most of these use OSD as a means of reducing site discharge of stormwater, thereby relieving catchment flooding. Sheas Creek is an urbanized catchment that lies within the South Sydney City Council Local Government Area. Since 1984 an OSD policy has been implemented in the Sheas Creek catchment. The associated design code, like most others in Sydney, is based on discharge from individual properties without consideration of runoff from other parts of the catchment. This design code is therefore not based on a total catchment approach. The objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of OSD in a catchment-wide manner. More specifically, to see how existing and planned OSD affects flooding in the Sheas Creek catchment, and to test the effectiveness of the current rate of permissible site discharge (PSD). The study also looks at the effectiveness of OSD when different spatial distributions are used across a catchment. The methodology involved using a computer rainfall-runoff model, OSDSAX, which is based on the ILLUDAS model. This was configured for the Sheas Creek catchment and was calibrated to match flood level data recorded during four large storm events. The model was then adopted to investigate the impact of OSD. Various scenarios were tested to satisfy the objectives of the study. Some of the results challenge conventional wisdom and these arise from catchment-specific characteristics. The analysis shows that the perceived beneficial effects of OSD are in some cases unrealistic and that catchment modelling is required to test and quantify the actual impacts for specific catchments.

Khiadani, M.H., Beecham, S.C., Kandasamy, J.K. & Sivakumar, S.M. 2005, 'Boundary shear stress in spatially varied flow with increasing discharge', Journal Of Hydraulic Engineering-ASCE, vol. 131, no. 8, pp. 705-714.
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The distribution of the wall shear stress on the bed and sidewalls of an open channel receiving lateral inflow was obtained from experimental measurements of the distribution of the velocity in the viscous sublayer using a laser doppler velocimeter. The

Hannan, J.M. & Kandasamy, J.K. 2009, 'Experience of 1D and 2D flood modelling in Australia - a guide to model selection based on channel and floodplain characteristics', European Conference on Flood Risk Management: Research and Practice, Oxford, UK, September 2008 in Flood Risk Management: Research and Practice - Proceedings of the European Conference, ed Paul Samuels; Stephen Huntington; William Allsop; Jackie Harrop, CRC Press - Taylor & Francis Group, The Netherlands, pp. 273-280.
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The average annual cost of flooding in Australia is $318 million per year (BTE, 2001). Some 100 flood studies, floodplain management studies and plans are currently being undertaken in Australia to seek to reduce the potential flood risk to residents and properties in flood-affected areas. Consequently, a great body of knowledge and experience in flood modelling practices has been acquired, from one-dimensional (1D) steady-state models through to two-dimensional (2D) finite element hydrodynamic models. This paper critically appraises 1D and 2D hydraulic modelling techniques based on a quantitative comparison of MIKE-11, HEC-RAS and RMA-2 modelling results for a creek system in Australia. Based on the findings of the case study, the paper provides practical guidance for modellers on the suitability of 1D and 2D modelling for common physical channel and floodplain characteristics.

Kannapiran, A., Jeyakumaran, J.M., Chanan, A.P., Kandasamy, J.K., Singh, G., Tambosis, P. & Al-Jumaily, A. 2007, 'Asset Management of Stormwater System using Fuzzy Logic', International Conference on Intelligent Technologies, Sydney, Australia, December 2007 in The Eighth International Conference on Intelligent Technologies (InTech-07), ed Quang Ha, University of Technology, Sydney, Sydney, Australia, pp. 182-188.
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Sundravadivivel, M., Kandasamy, J.K. & Vigneswaran, S. 2006, 'Policy and Design Issues in Rainwater Harvesting: Case Study in South Asia', IWA World Water Congress, Beijing, China, September 2006 in Rainwater Harvesting and Management Vision: Multipurpose and Proactive - Workshop of IWA World Water Congress, ed Han, M. and Murase, M., IWA, Beijing, China, pp. 69-78.
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Visvanathan, C., Kandasamy, J.K. & Vigneswaran, S. 2006, 'Rainwater Collection and Storage in Thailand: Design, Practices and Operation', IWA World Water Congress, Beijing, China, September 2006 in Rainwater Harvesting and Management Vision: Multipurpose and Proactive - Wortkshop of the IWA World Water Congress, ed Han, M. and Murase, M., IWA, Beijing, China, pp. 69-78.
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