Professor Claude Roux

Blanes, L., Tomazelli Coltro, W.K., Saito, R.M., do Lago, C.L., Roux, C.P. & Doble, P.A. 2013, 'Practical considerations for the design and implementation of High Voltage Power Supplies for Capillary and Microchip Capillary Electrophoresis' in Carlos D. Garc+¡a, Karin Y. Chumbimuni-Torres, Emanuel Carrilho (eds), Capillary Electrophoresis and Microchip Capillary Electrophoresis: Principles, Applications, and Lim, Wiley, Chichester, pp. 67-76.

Abraham, J., Kwan, P., Champod, C., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'An AFIS candidate list centric fingerprint likelihood ratio model based on morphometric and spatial analyses (MSA)' in Jucheng Yang and Shan Juan Xie (eds), New Trends and Developments in Biometrics, InTech, Rijeka, pp. 221-250.
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The use of fingerprints for identification purposes boasts worldwide adoption for a large variety of applications, from governance centric applications such as border control to personalised uses such as electronic device authentication. In addition to being an inexpensive and widely used form of biometric for authentication systems, fingerprints are also recognised as an invaluable biometric for forensic identification purposes such as law enforcement and disaster victim identification. Since the very first forensic applications, fingerprints have been utilised as one of the most commonly used form of forensic evidence worldwide.

Jackson, F.M., Maynard, P.J., Cavanagh-Steer, K.L., Dusting, T. & Roux, C.P. 2013, 'A survey of glass found on the headwear and head hair of a random population vs. people working with glass', Forensic Science International, vol. 226, no. 1-3, pp. 125-131.
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Lloyd, A.E., Russell, M., Blanes, L., Doble, P.A. & Roux, C.P. 2013, 'Lab-on-a-chip screening of methamphetamine and pseudoephedrine in samples from clandestine laboratories', Forensic Science International, vol. 228, no. 1-3, pp. 8-14.
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Morelato, M., Beavis, A.B., Kirkbride, K.P. & Roux, C.P. 2013, 'Forensic applications of desorption electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (DESI-MS)', Forensic Science International, vol. 226, no. 1-3, pp. 10-21.
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Morelato, M., Beavis, A.B., Tahtouh, M., Ribaux, O., Kirkbride, K.P. & Roux, C.P. 2013, 'The use of forensic case data in intelligence-led policing: The example of drug profiling', Forensic Science International, vol. 226, no. 1-3, pp. 1-9.
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Wood, M., Maynard, P.J., Spindler, X., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2013, 'Selective targeting of fingermarks using immunogenic techniques', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 211-226.
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Wood, M.A., Maynard, P.J., Spindler, X., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2013, 'Selective targeting of fingermarks using immunogenic techniques', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 211-226.
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Latent fingermark detection remains one of the most commonly utilised forensic practices when dealing with scenes of crime or related items. Although many options are available to detect and visualise these marks, the quest for techniques with greater sensitivity and selectivity continues. This has led to many improvements in detection methods and also numerous new techniques being developed. However, these have largely only led to incremental advancements despite the desire for transformational improvements. The use of immunology in the detection of latent fingermarks is an area that has been investigated more recently as a possible proposal to provide these transformational improvements, specifically to overcome sensitivity and selectivity issues currently seen with existing methods. This paper reviews the attempts to harness the detection capabilities of immunology and utilise them in the field of latent fingermark detection. Results achieved to date have highlighted many advantages and possibilities in detection and visualisation of latent marks, including the possibility of gaining `intelligence+ from the marks themselves. This paper also presents a brief introduction to the use of aptamers as the next logical step in immunogenic techniques for investigation.

Chadwick, S.R., Maynard, P.J., Kirkbride, K.P., Lennard, C.J., McDonagh, A.M., Spindler, X. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'Styryl dye coated metal oxide powders for the detection of latent fingermarks on non-porous surfaces', Forensic Science International, vol. 219, no. 1-3, pp. 208-214.
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Conventional fingermark powders rely on contrast induced by absorption/reflection (e.g. black powder) or luminescence in the visible region (e.g. Blitz Green-«). In most cases, these powders provide sufficient contrast; however, in some circumstances surface characteristics can interfere with the visualisation of powdered fingermarks. Visualisation in the near infra-red (NIR) region, however, has been shown to eliminate interferences commonly encountered in the visible region. In this study, a mixture of rhodamine 6G and the NIR laser dye styryl 11 (STaR 11) was coated onto an aluminium oxide nanopowder and then mixed with silver magnetic powder to develop and visualise fingermarks in the NIR. When compared to Blitz Green-«, it was determined that the STaR 11 magnetic powder was better suited for marks deposited on textured surfaces and for older marks, whereas Blitz Green-« performed better on smooth glossy surfaces. The ability of the STaR 11 mixed dye formulation to be visualised in both the visible and NIR regions also provides a significant advantage over conventional luminescent fingermark powders.

Ma, R., Shimmon, R., McDonagh, A.M., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'Fingermark detection on non-porous and semi-porous surfaces using YVO4:Er,Yb luminescent upconverting particles', Forensic Science International, vol. 217, no. 1-3, pp. e23-e26.
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This article describes the use of an anti-Stokes luminescent material (upconverter), yttrium vanadate doped with ytterbium and erbium (YVO4:Er,Yb), for the development of latent fingermarks on a range of non-porous surfaces. Anti-Stokes luminescent materials emit light at shorter wavelengths than the excitation wavelength. This property is unusual in both natural and artificial materials commonly found as exhibits in forensic science casework. As a result, fingermark detection techniques based on anti-Stokes luminescence are potentially extremely sensitive and selective. Latent fingermarks on non-luminescent and inherently luminescent substrates, including Australian polymer banknotes (a well-known 'difficult' surface), were developed with YVO4:Er,Yb by dry powder and wet powder techniques. The effectiveness of YVO4:Er,Yb for fingermark detection was compared with that of cyanoacrylate fuming and of sodium yttrium tetrafluoride doped with ytterbium and erbium (NaYF4:Er,Yb). The results illustrate some benefit of luminescent up-converting phosphors over traditional luminescence techniques for the detection of latent fingermarks.

Massonnet, G., Buzzini, P., Monard, F., Jochem, G., Fido, L., Bell, S., Stauber, M., Coyle, T., Roux, C.P., Hemmings, J., Leijenhorst, H., van Zanten, Z., Wiggins, K.G., Smith, C., Chabli, S., Sauneuf, T., Rosengarten, A., Meile, C., Ketterer, S. & Blumer, A. 2012, 'Raman spectroscopy and microspectrophotometry of reactive dyes on cotton fibres: Analysis and detection limits', Forensic Science International, vol. 222, no. (1-3), pp. 200-207.
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A collaborative study on Raman spectroscopy and microspectrophotometry (MSP) was carried out by members of the ENFSI (European Network of Forensic Science Institutes) European Fibres Group (EFG) on different dyed cotton fabrics. The detection limits of the two methods were tested on two cotton sets with a dye concentration ranging from 0.5 to 0.005% (w/w). This survey shows that it is possible to detect the presence of dye in fibres with concentrations below that detectable by the traditional methods of light microscopy and microspectrophotometry (MSP). The MSP detection limit for the dyes used in this study was found to be a concentration of 0.5% (w/w). At this concentration, the fibres appear colourless with light microscopy. Raman spectroscopy clearly shows a higher potential to detect concentrations of dyes as low as 0.05% for the yellow dye RY145 and 0.005% for the blue dye RB221. This detection limit was found to depend both on the chemical composition of the dye itself and on the analytical conditions, particularly the laser wavelength. Furthermore, analysis of binary mixtures of dyes showed that while the minor dye was detected at 1.5% (w/w) (30% of the total dye concentration) using microspectrophotometry, it was detected at a level as low as 0.05% (w/w) (10% of the total dye concentration) using Raman spectroscopy.

Montgomery, L.N., Spindler, X., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'Pre-treatment strategies for the improved cyanoacrylate development of dry latent fingermarks on non-porous surfaces', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 517-542.
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Cyanoacrylate fuming is a popular technique commonly used by evidence examiners for the development of latent fingermarks on nonporous surfaces. The process involves the preferential formation of hard, white polycyanoacrylate along the ridgelines of the fingerprint as opposed to the substrate background. This preferential deposition results in contrast between the fingerprint and substrate. This contrast may be further enhanced through the use of staining techniques such as rhodamine 6G. Because the cyanoacrylate mechanism is believed to be initiated by fingerprint constituents and catalyzed by moisture, ii follows that fingerprints subjected to harsh conditions (e.g., heat, low humidity, or CV light) often produce poorly developed results. This study aimed to further investigate and validate the use of 10% w/v methylamine as a pretreatment strategy to overcome the limitations associated with the cyanoacrylate development of dry fingerprints and to compare the results with those obtained using previously proposed pretreatment solutions. The effectiveness of this treatment was demonstrated on samples similar to those encountered in casework, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the treated fingerprints con- firmed the rejuvenation of the dry latent deposits through a qualitative assessment of the polymer morphology.

Montgomery, L.N., Spindler, X., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'Pretreatment strategies for the improved cyanoacrylate development of dry latent fingerprints on nonporous surfaces', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 517-542.
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Cyanoacrylate fuming is a popular technique commonly used by evidence examiners for the development of latent fingermarks on nonporous surfaces. The process involves the preferential formation of hard, white polycyanoacrylate along the ridgelines of the fingerprint as opposed to the substrate background. This preferential deposition results in contrast between the fingerprint and substrate. This contrast may be further enhanced through the use of staining techniques such as rhodamine 6G. Because the cyanoacrylate mechanism is believed to be initiated by fingerprint constituents and catalyzed by moisture, it follows that fingerprints subjected to harsh conditions (e.g., heat, low humidity, or UV light) often produce poorly developed results. This study aimed to further investigate and validate the use of 10 percent w/v methylamine as a pretreatment strategy to overcome the limitations associated with the cyanoacrylate development of dry fingerprints and to compare the results with those obtained using previously proposed pretreatment solutions. The effectiveness of the proposed treatment was demonstrated on samples similar to those encountered in casework, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the treated fingerprints confirmed the rejuvenation of the dry latent deposits through a qualitative assessment of the polymer morphology

Morelato, M., Beavis, A.B., Ogle, A., Doble, P.A., Kirkbride, K.P. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'Screening of gunshot residues using desorption electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry (DESI-MS)', Forensic Science International, vol. 217, no. 1-3, pp. 101-106.
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Several studies have indicated that there are potential environmental sources of particles resembling inorganic primer found in gunshot residues (GSR); as a consequence examiners are reluctant to unambiguously assign the origin of inorganic particles. If organic gunshot residues (OGSR) were found in combination with inorganic particles, the possibility of environmental sources could be potentially eliminated, thereby significantly enhancing the strength of the evidence. Methods have been previously described whereby GSR specimens can be analysed for the presence of OGSR or inorganic GRS (IGSR). However, no methods have been reported that allow the analysis of both OGSR and IGSR on the same specimen. Described in this article is a direct method using desorption electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) for the detection of methyl centralite (MC), ethyl centralite (EC) and diphenylamine (DPA) on adhesive tape GSR stubs typically used for scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analysis. The optimisation of numerous parameters was conducted using an experimental design. The results indicate that direct analysis of these organic components of GSR is possible although some limitations were also identified. This initial investigation has also indicated that subjecting stubs to DESI analysis does not interfere with subsequent SEM-EDX analysis of primer residues; therefore the technique described herein allows a comprehensive examination of GSR that would be highly probative in the event that both OGSR and IGSR are detected in the same specimen.

Roux, C.P., Crispino, F. & Ribaux, O. 2012, 'From Forensics to Forensic Science', Current Issues in Criminal Justice, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 7-24.
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The dominant conception of forensic science as a patchwork of disciplines primarily assisting the criminal justice system (defined as 'forensics' in this article) is in crisis, or at least shows a series of anomalies and serious limitations. While the symptoms have been largely discussed previously, we argue that many of the commonly suggested solutions may not solve the fundamental problem. As a solution, we propose the forensic science community revive the forensic science perspective from its historical roots; that is, the study of crime and its traces. This will lead to the development of holistic models to provide a strategy to integrate technologies, and to help scientists develop their potential to engage in a more significant way in policing, crime investigation and, more generally, in criminology, instead of further compartmentalising the various forensic fields.

Weyermann, C., Bucher, L., Majcherczyk, P., Mazzella, W.D., Roux, C.P. & Esseiva, P. 2012, 'Statistical Discrimination Of Black Gel Pen Inks Analysed By Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry', Forensic Science International, vol. 217, no. 1-3, pp. 127-133.
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Pearson correlation coefficients were applied for the objective comparison of 30 black gel pen inks analysed by laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (LDI-MS). The mass spectra were obtained for ink lines directly on paper using positive and nega

Wood, M., Maynard, P.J., Spindler, X., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2012, 'Visualization of latent fingermarks using an aptamer-based reagent', Angewandte Chemie International Edition, vol. 124, no. 0, pp. 12438-12440.
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Don't touch! Aptamers selected against lysozyme are transformed into aptamer-based reagents, with which latent fingermarks can be developed with high selectivity and sensitivity. The design of aptamers targeting components of latent fingermarks opens up a new range of detection methods that previously have not been explored.

Bossers, L., Roux, C.P., Bell, M. & McDonagh, A.M. 2011, 'Methods for the enhancement of fingermarks in blood', Forensic Science International, vol. 210, no. 1-3, pp. 1-11.
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Fingermarks formed in or by blood often require specific development techniques. This review examines techniques and materials that may be used to enhance and record fingermarks deposited in blood or fingermarks generated by blood-contaminated papillary ridges. A large number of techniques are presented here and are discussed from a chemical as well as practical perspective. It is concluded that an optimized sequence of techniques targeting both latent (non-bloody) and bloody fingermarks must be applied to detect and enhance the maximum number of marks, and therefore optimize the information content from exhibits that may bear marks in blood.

Chadwick, S.R., Maynard, P.J., Kirkbride, K.P., Lennard, C.J., Spindler, X. & Roux, C.P. 2011, 'Use of Styryl 11 and STaR 11 for the luminescence enhancement of cyanoacrylate-developed fingermarks in the visible and near-infrared regions', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 1505-1513.
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In current casework, most post-cyanoacrylate stains rely on luminescence emission in the visible region (400-700 nm). While traditional stains such as rhodamine 6G work well under most circumstances, some surfaces may generate background luminescence under the same conditions. Detection in the near-infrared region (NIR > 700 nm) has shown to be effective in minimizing the interferences from such surfaces. The laser dye styryl 11 generated strongly luminescent fingermarks when applied after cyanoacrylate fuming on all surfaces tested. When compared to rhodamine 6G, the dye was superior only when viewed in the NIR. Styryl 11 was subsequently combined with rhodamine 6G, and the mixed stain formulation (named StaR 11 by the authors) induced stronger luminescence compared with styryl 11 alone with an ability to visualize in both the visible and NIR regions. Reliable and consistent results were obtained when using either styryl 11 alone or the STaR 11 mixture. The enhancement achieved did not otherwise vary depending on the source of the fingermark secretions. With visualization possible in both the visible and NIR regions, the styryl 11/rhodamine 6G mixture showed significant potential as a post-cyanoacrylate stain.

Colella, M., Parkinson, A., Evans, T., Robertson, J. & Roux, C.P. 2011, 'The Effect Of Ionizing Gamma Radiation On Natural And Synthetic Fibers And Its Implications For The Forensic Examination Of Fiber Evidence', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 591-605.
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Circumstances of criminal activities involving radioactive materials may mean fiber evidence recovered from a crime scene could have been exposed to materials emitting ionizing radiation. The consequences of radiation exposed fibers on the result of the

Fung, T.C., Grimwood, K.M., Shimmon, R., Spindler, X., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2011, 'Investigation of hydrogen cyanide generation from the cyanoacrylate fuming process used for latent fingermark detection', Forensic Science International, vol. 212, no. 1-3, pp. 143-149.
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Cyanoacrylate fuming is one of the most common techniques employed for the detection of latent fingermarks on non-porous surfaces such as plastic and glass. The technique is generally applied by exposing items of interest to the vapours generated by heating a suitable quantity of commercial cyanoacrylate adhesive. In this study, the potential for highly toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to be generated from the overheating of cyanoacrylate was investigated. Two commercial cyanoacrylate adhesives and two quantitative methods for the determination of HCN were employed: (i) the sodium picrate method; and (ii) the picrate+resorcinol method. 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis was used to confirm the presence of cyanide. In addition, the thermal decomposition of cyanoacrylate was studied using simultaneous thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis (TGA+DTA). It was determined that detectable and quantifiable amounts of HCN were generated from the thermal decomposition of cyanoacrylate monomer and polymer at temperatures as low as 200 8C. Using an optimised picrate+resorcinol method, it was shown that around 10 mg of HCN could be generated from the heating of 1 g of cyanoacrylate monomer at 200 8C. For one of the adhesives tested, this increased to above 100 mg of HCN when 1 g of cyanoacrylate monomer was heated at 280 8C. Recommendations are provided that, if followed, should ensure that the cyanoacrylate fuming process can be safely applied with minimal risk to the operator.

Hoile, R.J., Banos, C., Colella, M. & Roux, C.P. 2011, 'Bioterrorism: The Effects Of Biological Decontamination On The Recovery Of Electronic Evidence', Forensic Science International, vol. 209, no. 1-3, pp. 143-148.
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The investigation of a bioterrorism event will ultimately lead to the collection of vital data from electronic devices such as computers and mobile phones. This project sought to determine the use of gamma irradiation and formaldehyde gas as effective biological decontaminants, and the effect of these methods on the recovery of electronic evidence. Electronic items were contaminated with viable spores and then exposed to both decontaminants. Log values for each matrix were calculated with flash drives recording the highest value of 566 Gy for gamma irradiation and a maximum of 50 min exposure to formaldehyde saw the effective destruction of spores. The results indicate that recovery of data varied based on the decontaminant selected, formaldehyde gas giving the most promising results, with electronic data recovered after the required exposure time. Gamma irradiation proved damaging to electronic circuitry at levels required to render the items safe. The implications to computer intelligence and forensics will be discussed based on the outcomes of these findings.

Julian, R., Kelty, S.F., Roux, C.P., Woodman, P., Robertson, J., Davey, A., Hayes, R., Margot, P., Ross, A.M., Sibly, H. & White, R.D. 2011, 'What is the value of forensic science? An overview of the effectiveness of forensic science in the Australian criminal justice system project', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 217-229.
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Forensic science is increasingly relied upon by law enforcement to assist in solving crime and gaining convictions, and by the judicial system in the adjudication of specific criminal cases. However, the value of forensic science relative to the work involved and the outcome of cases has yet to be established in the Australian context. Previous research in this area has mainly focused on the science and technology, rather than examining how people can use forensic services/science to the best possible advantage to produce appropriate justice outcomes. This five-year project entails an investigation into the effectiveness of forensic science in police investigations and court trials. It aims to identify when, where and how forensic science can add value to criminal investigations, court trials and justice outcomes while ensuring the efficient use of available resources initially in the Victorian and the ACT criminal justice systems and ultimately across Australia and New Zealand. This paper provides an overview of the rationale and aims of the research project and discusses current work-in-progress.

Lloyd, A.E., Blanes, L., Beavis, A.B., Roux, C.P. & Doble, P.A. 2011, 'A Rapid Method For The In-Field Analysis Of Amphetamines Employing The Agilent Bioanalyzer', Analytical Methods, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 1535-1539.
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This paper reports the first analysis of small molecules on the Agilent bio-analyser. The Bioanalyzer is a commercial lab-on-a-chip instrument designed for the analysis of DNA and proteins. We demonstrate that the instrument is suitable for analyses beyo

Ma, R., Bullock, E.A., Maynard, P.J., Reedy, B.J., Shimmon, R., Lennard, C.J., Roux, C.P. & McDonagh, A.M. 2011, 'Fingermark Detection On Non-Porous And Semi-Porous Surfaces Using Nayf(4):Er,Yb Up-Converter Particles', Forensic Science International, vol. 207, no. 1-Mar, pp. 145-149.
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This article describes the first use of an anti-Stokes material, or up-converter, for the development of latent fingermarks on a range of non-porous surfaces. Anti-Stokes materials can absorb long-wavelength light and emit light at a shorter wavelength. This property is unusual in both natural and artificial materials and so fingermark detection techniques based on anti-Stokes luminescence are potentially sensitive and selective. Latent fingermarks on luminescent and non-luminescent substrates, including Australian polymer banknotes (a well-known `difficult+ surface), were developed with sodium yttrium tetrafluoride doped with erbium and ytterbium (NaYF4:Er,Yb) by dry powder, wet powder, and cyanoacrylate staining techniques. This study illustrates the potential of up-converter phosphors for the detection of latent fingermarks.

Raymond, J., Van Oorschot, R., Walsh, S.J., Gunn, P.R. & Roux, C.P. 2011, 'How far have we come with trace DNA since 2004? The Australian and New Zealand experience', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 231-244.
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In 2004, a survey was sent to forensic organisations in every jurisdiction in Australia and New Zealand, benchmarking practices in relation to trace DNA analysis. Concerning issues were identified such as a lack of standard training protocols, little ongoing training or proficiency testing, and poor information gathering and sharing. To assess the changes occurring in the five years since this survey, a follow-up was devised and distributed to the same organisations in early 2009. Seventy-seven surveys were received from persons active in the field of trace DNA including crime scene and laboratory personnel, and managers. The major difference noted between the two surveys was the implementation of new technologies, primarily robotic automation and subsequent changes in extraction methodology. Disappointingly, training, research and proficiency test levels were still found to be lacking, a concern given the findings of recent international forensic reviews. A major deficiency still noted from the 2004 survey was the absence of effective data management systems, indicating that the wider intelligence-led application of this evidence is not fully utilised. Reviewing the methods and processes of the dissemination of forensic data in the policing environment has the potential to broaden its application to crime prevention strategies

Spindler, X., Hofstetter, O., McDonagh, A.M., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2011, 'Enhancement of latent fingermarks on non-porous surfaces using anti-l-amino acid antibodies conjugated to gold nanoparticles', Chemical Communications, vol. 47, no. 19, pp. 5602-5604.
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Enantioselective anti-L-amino acid antibodies conjugated to gold nanoparticles are shown to facilitate the detection of latent fingermarks by interacting with amino acids present in friction ridge secretions. This antibody-based system is particularly effective for the enhancement of aged and dried fingermarks on non-porous surfaces, an area unexploited by current techniques.

Spindler, X., Shimmon, R., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2011, 'The effect of zinc chloride, humidity and the substrate on the reaction of 1,2-indanedione-zinc with amino acids in latent fingermark secretions', Forensic Science International, vol. 212, no. 1-3, pp. 150-157.
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Anecdotal evidence from forensic practitioners and studies conducted under controlled conditions have indicated that the reaction between 1,2-indanedione and the amino acids present in latent fingermark deposits is highly susceptible to ambient humidity. The addition of catalytic amounts of zinc chloride to the 1,2-indanedione working solution + usually in the order of 1:25 to 1:4 molar ratio (indanedione:zinc) + significantly improves the colour and luminescence of fingermarks treated under dry conditions but appears to have a negligible effect on fingermarks treated in humid environments. The results presented in this paper confirmed that zinc(II) ions added to the 1,2-indanedione working solution act as a Lewis acid catalyst, stabilising a key intermediate during a rate-limiting hydrolysis step. Furthermore, studying the reaction using a chromatography-grade cellulose substrate method previously reported confirmed that cellulose substrates play a major role in facilitating the indanedione-amino acid reaction by acting as a surface catalyst in the early stages of the reaction and by directing the formation of the desired luminescent product (Joullie¦ +s Pink).

Szewcow, R., Robertson, J. & Roux, C.P. 2011, 'The influence of front-loading and top-loading washing machines on the persistence, redistribution and secondary transfer of textile fibres during laundering', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 263-273.
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This study investigated the influence of several factors on the redistribution of extraneous textile fibres on garments during machine washing. Cotton T-shirts were seeded with known numbers of acrylic, wool and viscose target fibres in controlled positions and laundered in top- and front-loading machines, both individually and accompanied by undergarments. The persistence of target fibres was low (generally <10%), but never zero. Between 50% and 100% of recovered fibres were redistributed away from the primary contact area. A secondary transfer of target fibres always occurred to at least one undergarment, 90% of experiments resulting in fibres transferred to the inside surface of the undergarments. This implies that whilst valuable fibre evidence may be recovered from garments after machine washing, the location of recovered fibres should not be relied upon to corroborate alleged scenarios when it is known or suspected that the garment under investigation has been laundered.

Weyermann, C., Roux, C.P. & Champod, C. 2011, 'Initial results on the composition of fingerprints and its evolution as a function of time by GC/MS analysis', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 102-108.
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Determining the time since deposition of fingermarks may prove necessary to assess their relevance to criminal investigations. The crucial factor is the initial composition of fingermarks, because it represents the starting point of any aging model. This study mainly aimed to characterize the initial composition of fingerprints, which show a high variability between donors (inter-variability), but also to investigate the variations among fingerprints from the same donor (intra-variability). Solutions to reduce this initial variability using squalene and cholesterol as target compounds are proposed and should be further investigated. The influence of substrates was also evaluated, and the initial composition was observed to be larger on porous surface than nonporous surfaces. Preliminary aging of fingerprints over 30 days was finally studied on a porous and a nonporous substrate to evaluate the potential for dating of fingermarks. Squalene was observed to decrease in a faster rate on a nonporous substrate.

Bennett, S., Roux, C.P. & Robertson, J. 2010, 'The significance of fibre transfer and persistence-A case study', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 221-228.
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In April, 1995 the body of a young woman was found in a suburb of Sydney, Australia. The body was fully clothed and bore a number of injuries to the neck, face and fingers. There were no signs of sexual assault and she appeared to have been strangled. The only physical evidence located at the scene was a number of dark, coarse fibres adhering to the soles of her shoes. These fibres consisted of nine grey polypropylene, 12 blue polypropylene and 50 black polyester fibres. The source of these fibres was found to be the carpet of a 1991 Honda CRX that belonged to the suspect. Almost all other possible sources of these fibres were eliminated. At trial, the source of the fibres was not disputed by the defence. Instead the issue became how long these fibres had persisted on the shoe soles. A number of experiments were conducted to investigate the factors influencing the transfer and persistence of carpet fibres to shoe soles and the results of these experiments became a critically important part of the prosecution.

Benson, S.J., Lennard, C.J., Hill, D.E., Maynard, P.J. & Roux, C.P. 2010, 'Forensic Analysis Of Explosives Using Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (Irms)-Part 1: Instrument Validation Of The Deltaplusxp Irms For Bulk Nitrogen Isotope Ratio Measurements', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 193-204.
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A significant amount of research has been conducted into the use of stable isotopes to assist in determining the origin of various materials. The research conducted in the forensic field shows the potential of isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to pr

Benson, S.J., Lennard, C.J., Maynard, P.J., Hill, D.E., Andrew, A.S., Neal, K., Stuart-williams, H., Hope, J., Walker, G.S. & Roux, C.P. 2010, 'Forensic Analysis Of Explosives Using Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (Irms)-Part 2: Forensic Inter-Laboratory Trial: Bulk Carbon And Nitrogen Stable Isotopes In A Range Of Chemical Compounds (Australia And New Zealand)', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 205-212.
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Comparability of data over time and between laboratories is a key issue for consideration in the development of global databases, and more broadly for quality assurance in general. One mechanism that can be utilized for evaluating traceability is an inte

Chan, J.H., Shimmon, R., Spindler, X., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J., Roux, C.P. & Stuart, B.H. 2010, 'An investigation of isatin as a potential reagent for latent fingermark detection on porous surfaces', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 320-336.
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This study investigated isatin as a potential fingermark enhancement reagent for use on porous surfaces. A number of parameters were investigated, including concentration, solvent system, pH of the solution, and optimization of the development conditions. It was determined that isatin at a concentration of 0.05% (w/v) provided the optimum balance between the luminescence of the fingermark ridges and background. A carrier solvent of dioxane mixed with acetone [12.5% (v/v)] produced the most intense luminescence. It was determined that the optimum pH for the development of fingermarks was 5.0 and that this could be reached by the addition of 4% (vlv) sodium carbonate buffer. The use of a dry heat press at 180¦C for 10 s provided optimal development conditions.

Epple, R., Blanes, L., Beavis, A.B., Roux, C.P. & Doble, P.A. 2010, 'Analysis of amphetamine-type substances by capillary zone electrophoresis using capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection', Electrophoresis, vol. 31, no. S1, pp. 2608-2613.
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CE with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4D) was employed for the separation and detection of seven amphetamine analogues as well as amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. The separation electrolyte was 30 mM hydroxypropyl-~-cyclodextrin (HPPCD) in a 75 mM acetic acid+25 mM sodium acetate buffer adjusted to pH 4.55. Conductivity detection was compared with UV detection using this same electrolyte. Average detection limits for C4D and UV were 1.3 and 1.0 ppm, respectively. The effects of HPPCO -concentration and BGE composition on the selectivity of the separation were also investigated. An illicit, street-grade sample of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) and a prescription dextroamphetamine tablet were also analysed.

Hoile, R.J., Banos, C., Colella, M., Walsh, S.J. & Roux, C.P. 2010, 'Gamma irradiation as a biological decontaminant and its effect on common fingermark detection techniques and DNA profiling', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 171-177.
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The use of disease-causing organisms and their toxins against the civilian population has defined bioterrorism and opened forensic science up to the challenges of processing contaminated evidence. This study sought to detennine the use of gamma irradiation as an effective biological decontaminant and its effect on the recovery of latent fingennarks from both porous and nonporous items. Test items were contaminated with viable spores marked with latent pIinrs and then decontaminated using a cobalt 60 gamma irradiator. Fingerrnark detection was the focus with standard methods inclurJing 1,2-inrJanedione, ninhydrin, diazafluoren-9-one, and physical developer used during this study. DNA recovery using 20% Chelex extraction and quantitative real-time polymerdse chain reaction was also explored. Gamma irradiation proved effective as a bacterial decontaminant with D-values ranging from 458 to 500 Gy for nonporous items and 797-808 Gy for porous ones. The results demonstrated the successful recovel)' of latent marks and DNA establishing gamma irradiation as a viable decontamination option.

Ribaux, O., Baylon, A., Roux, C.P., Delemont, O., Lock, E., Zingg, C. & Margot, P. 2010, 'Intelligence-led crime scene processing. Part I: Forensic intelligence', Forensic Science International, vol. 195, no. 1-3, pp. 10-16.
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Forensic science is generally defined as the application of science to address questions related to the law. Too often, this view restricts the contribution of science to one single process which eventually aims at bringing individuals to court while minimising risk of miscarriage of justice. In order to go beyond this paradigm, we propose to refocus the attention towards traces themselves, as remnants of a criminal activity, and their information content. We postulate that traces contribute effectively to a wide variety of other informational processes that support decision making in many situations. In particular, they inform actors of new policing strategies who place the treatment of information and intelligence at the centre of their systems. This contribution of forensic science to these security oriented models is still not well identified and captured. In order to create the best condition for the development of forensic intelligence, we suggest a framework that connects forensic science to intelligence-led policing (part I). Crime scene attendance and processing can be envisaged within this view. This approach gives indications about how to structure knowledge used by crime scene examiners in their effective practice (part II).

Ribaux, O., Baylon, A., Lock, E., Delemont, O., Roux, C.P., Zingg, C. & Margot, P. 2010, 'Intelligence-led crime scene processing. Part II: Intelligence and crime scene examination', Forensic Science International, vol. 199, pp. 63-71.
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A better integration of the information conveyed by traces within intelligence-led framework would allow forensic science to participate more intensively to security assessments through forensic intelligence (part I). In this view, the collection of data by examining crime scenes is an entire part of intelligence processes. This conception frames our proposal for a model that promotes to better use knowledge available in the organisation for driving and supporting crime scene examination. The suggested model also clarifies the uncomfortable situation of crime scene examiners who must simultaneously comply with justice needs and expectations, and serve organisations that are mostly driven by broader security objectives. It also opens new perspective for forensic science and crime scene investigation, by the proposal to follow other directions than the traditional path suggested by dominant movements in these fields.

Robertson, J. & Roux, C.P. 2010, 'Trace evidence: Here today, gone tomorrow?', Science & Justice, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 18-22.
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The recent report of the National Research Council of the US National Academies +Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: a Path Forward+ found evidence that the level of scientific development and evaluation varies substantially among the forensic science disciplines. In this paper the status of trace evidence will be reviewed from an international perspective with particular reference to case studies. The paper will argue that the trace evidence discipline needs to learn from past experience and that serious coordinated action is required at an international level if trace evidence is to continue to meet the standards expected of forensic science in the future. The paper concludes that it is vital that trace evidence remains a key component of forensic investigation due to its important role in addressing the `what happened+ question.

Benson, S.J., lennard, c., Maynard, P.J., Hill, D., Andrews, A. & Roux, C.P. 2009, 'Forensic analysis of explosives using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) - Discrimination of ammonium nitrate sources', Science & Justice, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 73-80.
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An evaluation was undertaken to determine if isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) could assist in the investigation of complex forensic cases by providing a level of discrimination not achievable utilising traditional forensic techniques. The focus of the research was on ammonium nitrate (AN), a common oxidiser used in improvised explosive mixtures. The potential value of IRMS to attribute Australian AN samples to the manufacturing source was demonstrated through the development of a preliminary AN classi´¼ cation scheme based on nitrogen isotopes. Although the discrimination utilising nitrogen isotopes alone was limited and only relevant to samples from the three Australian manufacturers during the evaluated time period, the classi´¼ cation scheme has potential as an investigative aid. Combining oxygen and hydrogen stable isotope values permitted the differentiation of AN prills from three different Australian manufacturers. Samples from ´¼ ve different overseas sources could be differentiated utilising a combination of the nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen isotope values. Limited differentiation between Australian and overseas prills was achieved for the samples analysed. The comparison of nitrogen isotope values from intact AN prill samples with those from post-blast AN prill residues highlighted that the nitrogen isotopic composition of the prills was not maintained post-blast; hence, limiting the technique to analysis of un-reacted explosive material.

Benson, S.J., lennard, c., Maynard, P.J., Andrews, A., Hill, D. & Roux, C.P. 2009, 'Forensic analysis of explosives using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) - Preliminary study on TATP and PETN', Science & Justice, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 81-86.
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The application of isotopic techniques to investigations requiring the provision of evidence to a Court is limited. The objective of this research was to investigate the application of light stable isotopes and isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to solve complex forensic cases by providing a level of discrimination not achievable utilising traditional forensic techniques. Due to the current threat of organic peroxide explosives, such as triacetone triperoxide (TATP), research was undertaken to determine the potential of IRMS to differentiate samples of TATP that had been manufactured utilising different starting materials and/or manufacturing processes. In addition, due to the prevalence of pentaerythritoltetranitrate (PETN) in detonators, detonating cord, and boosters, the potential of the IRMS technique to differentiate PETN samples from different sources was also investigated. Carbon isotope values were measured in fourteen TATP samples, with three de´¼ nite groups appearing in the initial sample set based on the carbon data alone. Four additional TATP samples (in a second set of samples) were distinguishable utilising the carbon and hydrogen isotopic compositions individually, and also in combination with the oxygen isotope values. The 3D plot of the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen data demonstrated the clear discrimination of the four samples of TATP. The carbon and nitrogen isotope values measured from ´¼ fteen PETN samples, allowed samples from different sources to be readily discriminated. This paper demonstrates the successful application of IRMS to the analysis of explosives of forensic interest to assist in discriminating samples from different sources. This research represents a preliminary evaluation of the IRMS technique for the measurement of stable isotope values in TATP and PETN samples, and supports the dedication of resources for a full evaluation of this application in order to achieve Court reportable IRMS results.

Colella, M., Parkinson, A., Evans, T., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2009, 'The recovery of latent fingermarks from evidence exposed to ionizing radiation', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 1-8.
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Continual reports of illicit trafficking incidents involving radioactive materials have prompted authorities to consider the likelihood of forensic evidence being exposed to radiation. In this study, we investigated the ability to recover latent fingermark evidence from a variety of substrates that were exposed to ionizing radiation. Fingermarks deposited on common surfaces, including aluminum, glass, office paper, and plastic, were exposed to doses ranging from 1 to 1000 kGy, in an effort to simulate realistic situations where evidence is exposed to significant doses of radiation from sources used in a criminal act. The fingermarks were processed using routine fingermark detection techniques. With the exception of glass and aluminum substrates, radiolysis had a considerable effect on the quality of the developed fingermarks. The damage to ridge characteristics can, in part, be attributed to chemical interactions between the substrate and the components of the fingermark secretions that react with the detection reagents.

Huttunen, J.E., Dawson, M., Roux, C.P. & Robertson, J. 2009, 'Physical Evidence In Drug Intelligence Part 3: Supercritical Fluid Extraction-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Of Packaging Tapes', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 63-72.
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It may be desirable to compare samples of packaging tape or identify their specific brand and/or model based on analytical results. Such information may, for example, be used to infer or refute hypotheses of common origin for separately seized packages o

Maynard, P.J., Jenkins, J., Edey, c., Payne, G.L., Lennard, C.J., McDonagh, A.M. & Roux, C.P. 2009, 'Near infrared imaging for the improved detection of fingermarks on difficult surfaces', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 43-62.
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The near infrared spectral region offers advantages over the visible region in the detection of latent fingermarks due to increased contrast and decreased background luminescence. In this work, a chemical imaging system was used to image latent fingermarks in the near-infrared (NIR) region. A variety of porous, non-porous and semi-porous surfaces were tested using standard chemical and physical enhancement techniques. NIR dyes were also used to enhance latent marks. Both absorption and luminescence properties of the treated marks were examined over the spectral range 650-1100 nm. Significant NIR absorption was found for ninhydrin, iodine/benzoflavone, physical developer, and powdering. NIR luminescence emission was found for DFO, ninhydrin with zinc salt post treatment, 1,2-indanedione and genipin. Significant NIR luminescence emission was found for cyanoacrylate fuming followed by staining with NIR dyes. In addition, metal oxide powders coated with NIR dyes were able to enhance fingermarks on a patterned and highly luminescent surface.

Raymond, J.J., Van Oorschot, R., Gunn, P., Walsh, S.J. & Roux, C.P. 2009, 'Trace evidence characteristics of DNA: A preliminary investigation of the persistence of DNA at crime scenes', Forensic Science International: Genetics, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 26-33.
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The successful recovery of trace or contact DNA is highly variable. It is seemingly dependent on a wide range of factors, from the characteristics of the donor, substrate and environment, to the delay between contact and recovery. There is limited research on the extent of the effect these factors have on trace DNA analysis. This study investigated the persistence of trace DNA on surfaces relevant to the investigation of burglary and robbery offences. The study aimed to limit the number of variables involved to solely determine the effect of time on DNA recovery. Given that it is difficult to control the quantity of DNA deposited during a hand contact, human buffy coat and DNA control solution were chosen as an alternative to give a more accurate measure of quantity. Set volumes of these solutions were deposited onto outdoor surfaces (window frames and vinyl material to mimic burglary and `bag snatch+ offences) and sterile glass slides stored in a closed environment in the laboratory, for use as a control. Trace DNA casework data was also scrutinised to assess the effect of time on DNA recovery from real samples. The amount of DNA recovered from buffy coat on the outdoor surfaces declined by approximately half over two weeks, to a negligible amount after six weeks. Profiles could not be obtained after two weeks. The samples stored in the laboratory were more robust, and full profiles were obtained after six weeks, the longest time period tested in these experiments. It is possible that profiles may be obtained from older samples when kept in similarly favourable conditions.

Bojko, K.L., Roux, C.P. & Reedy, B.J. 2008, 'An examination of the sequence of intersecting lines using attenuated total reflectance fourier transform infrared spectral imaging', Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 1458-1467.
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Choi, M., McBean, K.E., McDonagh, A.M., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2008, 'An evaluation of nanostructured zinc oxide as a fluorescent powder for fingerprint detection', Journal of Materials Science, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 732-737.
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Zinc oxide is evaluated as a fluorescent powder for the detection of fingermarks on non-porous surfaces. Pure and lithium-doped nanostructured zinc oxide powders were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The zinc oxide powders were applied to fresh and aged fingermarks deposited on non-porous surfaces such as glass, polyethylene and aluminium foil. Zinc oxide was found to produce clear fluorescent impressions of the latent fingermarks when illuminated with long-wave UV light

Choi, M., McDonagh, A.M., Maynard, P.J. & Roux, C.P. 2008, 'Metal-containing Nanoparticles and Nano-structured Particles in Fingermark Detection', Forensic Science International, vol. 179, no. 2-3, pp. 87-97.
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This article reviews the application of metal-containing nanoparticles and nano-structured particles to fingermark detection. This area of research is attracting significant interest as advances in nanoscience are being incorporated into the field of forensic fingermark detection. Although more research is needed before some of the techniques presented can be implemented in routine casework, nanotechnology is likely to play a major role in the future to deliver more selective and more sensitive ways to detect and enhance fingermarks.

huttunen, J., Doble, P.A., Dawson, M., Roux, C.P. & Robertson, J. 2008, 'Physical evidence in drug intelligence, Part 2: discrimination of packaging tapes by colour', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 73-83.
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The authors have considered routine exploitation of physical evidence from seized shipments of illicit drugs for intelligence purposes. Part 1 of this series addressed the identification of polymer type within the adhesive pf packaging tapes and raised important issues with regard to how data should be collated in a databse as a basis for reliable drug intelligence. this article expands onthis topic by addressingt eh sue of colour for achieving the same aim. By using a relatively simple instrumental technique to analyse opaque 'brown' packaging tapes, it was found that colour was an effective way to discriminate between different adhesive tape samples. However, unitial results showed that the analysis of colour in packaging tapes was more complex than assigning seminsubjective names to particular hues (e.g. light brown, greenm brown etc). Instead, samples in the population often differed only slightly from one another and hence proved difficult to categorise. Thus, a database or analyst must avoid using such 'discrete' labels and instead make use of 'continuous' numerical data. Here, CIELab chromaticity coordinates were used to define representative colour spaces for each tape sample and these were then compared to determine whether two such volumes intersected. This process would decide whether or not the sampes could be discriminated. While several sets of data were compared, further work needs to be carried out into the consistency of colour within single rolls of tape or batches of tape.

Raymond, J.J., Walsh, S.J., Van Oorschot, R., Gunn, P., Evans, L. & Roux, C.P. 2008, 'Assessing trace DNA evidence from a residential burglary: abundance, transfer and persistence', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 442-443.
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Raymond, J.J., Van Oorschot, R., Walsh, S.J. & Roux, C.P. 2008, 'Do you know what your neighbour is doing?. A multi-jurisdictional survey', Forensic Science International: Genetics, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 19-28.
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Since 1997 the analysis of DNA recovered from handled objects or 'trace' DNA has become routine and is frequently demanded from crime scene examinations. However, this anlaysis often produces unpredictable results. The factors affecting the recovery of full profiles are numerous and include varying methods of collectiona nd analysis. Communication between forensic laboratories in Australia and New Zealand has been limited in the past due in some part to sheet distance. Because of its relatively small population and low number of forensic jurisdictions this region is in an excelllent position to provide a collective approach. However, the protocols training methods and research of each jurisdiction had not been widely exchanged. A survey was developed to benchmark the current practices involved in trace DNA analysis, aiming to provide information for training programs and research directions, and to identy factors contributing to the success or failure of the analysis.

Salama, J., Aumeer-Donovan, S.B., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2008, 'Evaluation of the fingermark reagent oil red O as a possible replacement for physical developer', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 203-237.
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Walsh, S.J., Buckleton, J.S., Ribaux, O., Roux, C.P. & Raymond, T. 2008, 'Comparing the growth effectiveness of forensic DNA databases', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 667-668.
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Choi, M., Smoother, T., Martin, A.A., McDonagh, A.M., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2007, 'Fluorescent TiO2 powders prepared using a new perylene diimide dye: Applications in latent fingermark detection', Forensic Science International, vol. 173, no. 2, pp. 154-160.
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A new, highly fluorescent dye was synthesised using oleylamine combined with a perylene dianhydride compound. The new dye was characterised by H-1 NMR, UV-vis spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy as well as quantum yield. The dye was absorbed onto

Hoile, R.J., Walsh, S.J. & Roux, C.P. 2007, 'Bioterrorism: Processing Contaminated Evidence, The Effects Of Formaldehyde Gas On The Recovery Of Latent Fingermarks', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 1097-1102.
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In the present age of heightened emphasis on counter terrorism, law enforcement and forensic science are constantly evolving and adapting to the motivations and capabilities of terrorist groups and individuals. The use of biological agents on a populatio

Huttunen, J.E., Austin, C.E., Dawson, M., Roux, C.P. & Robertson, J. 2007, 'Physical evidence in drug intelligence, Part 1: rationale based on hierarchic distribution of drugs using pyrolysis gas chromatography- Mass spectrometry as an example', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 93-106.
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A complementary intelligence-gathering tool is described for drug-crime investigation. Scientific analysis and interpretation of packaging materials from seized shipments of illicit drugs will assist law enforcement by creating a more holistic description of each seizure, thus allowing further inferences to be drawn and ultimately assisting in a more thorough understanding of the flow of drugs to or within a particular jurisdiction. The approach is intended as an extension to chemical and physical profiling methods already applied to the actual seized drugs by many law enforcement organisations around the world. Adhesives from 98 rolls of packaging tape were analysed by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (PyGCMS) for the purposes of determining the types of polymers commonly found in such samples. Using these results as an example, models outlined within this document describe how drug and packaging analysis can complement each other, and how such data can be used in an intelligence capacity. Some limitations of the approach are also identified and discussed.

Payne, G.L., Langlois, N.E., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2007, 'Applying Visible Hyperspectral (chemical) Imaging To Estimate The Age Of Bruises', Medicine Science And The Law, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 225-232.
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Hyperspectral (chemical) imaging collects spectroscopic data in a two-dimensional spatial format. The potential application for the determination of the age of bruises is demonstrated and compared to reflectance probe spectrophotometry as well as photogr

Stoilovic, M., Lennard, C.J., Wallace - Kunkel, C.S. & Roux, C.P. 2007, 'Evaluation of a 1,2-Indanedione Formulation Containing Zinc Chloride for Improved Fingermark Detection on Paper', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 4-18.
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NA

Stoilovic, M., Lennard, C.J., Wallace - Kunkel, C.S. & Roux, C.P. 2007, 'Use of dichloromethane in fingerprint reagent formulations', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 333-334.
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Letter to the editor

Wallace - Kunkel, C.S., Lennard, C.J., Stoilovic, M. & Roux, C.P. 2007, 'Optimisation and Evaluation of 1,2-Indanedione for Use as a Fingermark Reagent and its Application to Real Samples', Forensic Science International, vol. 168, no. 1, pp. 14-26.
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1,2-Indanedione is an emerging fingermark reagent used on porous surfaces. The general consensus is that this reagent is at least as sensitive as DFO, with some research showing higher sensitivity for 1,2-indanedione as opposed to DFO.However, a number o

Benson, S.J., Lennard, C.J., Maynard, P.J. & Roux, C.P. 2006, 'Forensic applications of isotope ratio mass spectrometry - A review', Forensic Science International, vol. 157, no. 1, pp. 1-22.
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The key role of a forensic scientist is to assist in determining whether a crime has been committed, and if so, assist in the identification of the offender. Many people hold the belief that a particular item can be conclusively linked to a specific pers

Choi, M., McBean, K.E., Wuhrer, R., McDonagh, A.M., Maynard, P.J., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2006, 'Investigation into the binding of gold nanoparticles to fingermarks using scanning electron microscopy', Journal of Forensic identification, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 24-32.
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For the first time, scanning electron microscopy has been used to investigate the binding of gold nanoparticles to fingermarks placed on nanoporous surfaces. The results show that gold nanoparticles, under standard MMDII conditions, bind preferentially to latent fingermark ridges on nonporous surfaces. Variation in surfactant concentration influences background development but does not affect the binding of gold nanoparticles to the ridges, while pH variation influences the binding to ridges but leaves valley regions unaffected.

Choi, M., McDonagh, A.M., Maynard, P.J., Wuhrer, R., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2006, 'Preparation and evaluation of metal nanopowders for the detection of fingermarks on nonporous surfaces', Journal of Forensic identification, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 756-768.
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gold and silver nanoparticles using oleylamine as a stabilizer have been formulated for developing latent fingermarks on nonporous surfaces. These nanopowders are compared with conventional powders such as black powder, black magnetic powder, aluminium powder and white powder. Gold nanopowder produced sharp and clear development of latent fingermarks without background staining. Scanning electron microscope images revealed that particles were concentrated inthe fingermark ridge areas, with only minor amounts located in the valley regions.

Bojko, K.L., O'Leary, R., Roux, C.P. & Reedy, B.J. 2006, 'Forensic analysis of bicomponent fibers using infrared chemical imaging', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 586-596.
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The application of infrared chemical imaging to the analysis of bicomponent fibers was evaluated. Eleven nominally bicomponent fibers were examined either side-on or in cross-section. In six of the 11 samples, infrared chemical imaging was able to spatia

Wallace - Kunkel, C.S., Lennard, C.J., Stoilovic, M. & Roux, C.P. 2006, 'Evaluation of 5-Methylthioninhydrin for the Detection of Fingermarks on Porous Surfaces and Comparison', Identification Canada, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 4-13.
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The chemical 5-methylthioninhydrin was developed in the early 1990s for treating fingermarks on porous surfaces. Although many researchers showed the promise of this chemical during the years between 1990 and 1997, current research indicates that this reagent is sill not commonly used in casework. The current study assessed the commercially produced 5-methylthioninhydrin and compared it to the more commonly used reagents for detecting fingermarks on porous surfaces. The study found that 5-methylthioninhydrin is superior to ninhydrin; however, 1,2-indanedione produced a much stronger luminescence when used to treat latent fingermarks. Comparable fluorescence was produced with 5-methlthioninhydrin after metal salt treatment to DFO; the high background detracts from the ridge detail, however. The study concludes that although the cost of 5-methylthioninhydrin is higher than for conventional reagents, its use may be justified in some circumstances. The second article begins with an illustrated step-by-step demonstration of the technique for blending two exposures of the same scene. It involves the use of layers within Adobe Photoshop CS and then placing one exposure overtop of another exposure. The best qualities of each exposure are then used in the final print. The article then examines a few applied forensic applications of the blending of two exposures, including a technique for rescuing underexposed images. This issue+s section on +Society Business+ (Canadian Identification Society) addresses Society awards, the +President+s message," the 29th CIS Educational Conference, guidelines for authors, a listing of award winners and past presidents, and a listing of staff members

Burger, F.J., Dawson, M., Roux, C.P., Maynard, P.J., Doble, P.A. & Kirkbride, K.P. 2005, 'Forensic analysis of condom and personal lubricants by capillary electrophoresis', Talanta, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 368-376.
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Condoms may offer sexual assailants a simple and relatively effective means by which they may remove and dispose of the biological evidence of their contact with the victim. Without this valuable probative evidence, the investigator may need to turn to s

Cavanagh-Steer, K.L., Du Pasquier, E., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2005, 'The transfer and persistence of petrol on car carpets', Forensic Science International, vol. 147, no. 1, pp. 71-79.
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The significance of the presence of petrol in motor vehicle fires has often been challenged due to the possibility of a natural occurrence of petrol residues inside the vehicle. Transfer and persistence studies were undertaken to investigate the potentia

Esseiva, P., Anglada, F., Dujourdy, L., Taroni, F., Margot, P., Du Pasquier, E., Dawson, M., Roux, C.P. & Doble, P.A. 2005, 'Chemical profiling and classification of illicit heroin by principal component analysis, calculation of inter sample correlation and artificial neural networks', Talanta, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 360-367.
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Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were utilised to validate illicit drug classification in the profiling method used at Institut de Police Scientifique of the University of Lausanne (IPS). This method established links between samples using a combination

Bojko, K.L., O'Leary, R., Lennard, C.J., Roux, C.P. & Reedy, B.J. 2005, 'Forensic applications of infrared chemical imaging: Multi-layered paint chips', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 832-841.
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This paper examines the potential of infrared chemical (hyperspectral) imaging as a technique for the forensic analysis or automotive paint chips in particular, and multicomponent (e.g., layered) samples in general. Improved sample preparation procedures

Massonnet, G., Buzzini, P., Jochem, G., Stauber, M., Coyle, T., Roux, C.P., Thomas, J.M., Leijenhorst, H., van Zanten, Z., Wiggins, K.G., Russell, C., Chabli, S. & Rosengarten, A. 2005, 'Evaluation of Raman Spectroscopy for the analysis of colored fibers: A collaborative study', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 1028-1038.
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A collaborative study on Raman spectroscopy was carried out by members of the ENFSI (European Network of Forensic Science Institutes) European Fibres Group (EFG) on three dyed fibers: two red acrylics and one red wool. Raman instruments from six differen

Payne, G.L., Reedy, B.J., Lennard, C.J., Comber, B., Exline, D.L. & Roux, C.P. 2005, 'A further study to investigate the detection and enhancement of latent fingerprints using visible absorption and luminescence chemical imaging', Forensic Science International, vol. 150, no. 1, pp. 33-51.
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This study investigated the application of chemical imaging to the detection of latent fingerprints using the Condor macroscopic chemical imaging system (ChemImage Corp., Pittsburgh, USA). Methods were developed and optimised for the visualisation of unt

Payne, G.L., Wallace - Kunkel, C.S., Reedy, B.J., Lennard, C.J., Schuler, R.L., Exline, D.L. & Roux, C.P. 2005, 'Visible and near-infrared chemical imaging methods for the analysis of selected forensic samples', Talanta, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 334-344.
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This study investigated various chemical imaging methods for the forensic analysis of paints, tapes and adhesives, inks and firearm propellants (absorption and photoluminescence in the UV-vis-NIR regions). Results obtained using chemical imaging technolo

Schiemer, C.E., Lennard, C.J., Maynard, P.J. & Roux, C.P. 2005, 'Evaluation of techniques for the detection and enhancement of latent fingermarks on black electrical tape', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 215-236.
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NA

Tahtouh, M., Kalman, J.R., Roux, C.P., Lennard, C.J. & Reedy, B.J. 2005, 'The detection and enhancement of latent fingermarks using infrared chemical imaging', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 64-72.
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The use of a new technique, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) chemical imaging, has been demonstrated for the enhancement of latent fingermarks on a number of surfaces. Images of untreated fingermarks on glass backgrounds with excellent ridge detail were

Thomas, J., Buzzini, P., Massonnet, G., Reedy, B.J. & Roux, C.P. 2005, 'Raman spectroscopy and the forensic analysis of black/grey and blue cotton fibres - Part 1. Investigation of the effects of varying laser wavelength', Forensic Science International, vol. 152, no. 2, pp. 189-197.
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Raman spectroscopy was investigated to determine the optimal conditions, mainly laser wavelength/s, for the analysis of the commonly encountered black/grey and blue cotton fibres dyed with reactive dyes. In this first part, a single blue cotton fibre, it

Watt, R.T., Roux, C.P. & Robertson, J. 2005, 'The population of coloured textile fibres in domestic washing machines', Science & Justice, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 75-83.
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A population survey was carried out to analyse examples of the coloured fibre population that may be expected to exist in both front- and top-loading domestic washing machines during Spring, in Sydney, Australia. White cotton T-shirts were washed both in

Bojko, K.L., Maynard, P.J., Du Pasquier, E., Lennard, C.J., Stoilovic, M. & Roux, C.P. 2004, 'Evaluation of iodine-benzoflavone and Ruthenium Tetroxide spray reagents for the detection of latent fingermarks at the crime scene', Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 1-9.
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Paull, B., Roux, C.P., Dawson, M. & Doble, P.A. 2004, 'Rapid screening of selected organic explosives by high performance liquid chromatography using reversed-phase monolithic columns', Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 1-6.
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Raymond, J.J., Roux, C.P., Du Pasquier, E., Sutton, J. & Lennard, C.J. 2004, 'The effect of common fingerprint detection techniques on the DNA typing of fingerprints deposited on different surfaces', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 22-44.
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DNA and fingerprints are two of the most important forms of evidence in terms o their ability to individualize person. This study investigated the effect of common fingerprint detection techniques of the recovery of DNA from fingerprints.It was found that the recovery of DNA is possible after fingerprint development using certain techniques, and that the recovery is more dependent on the surface type rather than the enhancement technique used. Fingerprints placed on plastic bags, glass microscope slides, and adhesive tape returned DNA profiles before and after treatment, which consisted of while light, UV, dactyloscopic powders, Stickyside Powder, and cyanoacrylate plus rhodamine 6G stain or VMD treatment.The profiles that were obtained from these surfaces were often found to contain contamination peaks, and at this stage, trace DNA analysis of this type may be more useful as an intelligence tool, rather than being relied upon in court for identification purposes. No DNA profiles were obatined from treated or untreated prints on paper an aluminium foil substrates.

Raymond, J.J., Walsh, S.J., Van Oorschot, R., Gunn, P. & Roux, C.P. 2004, 'Trace DNA: an underutilised resource or Pandora's Box? A review of the use of trace DNA analysis in the investigation of volume crime', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 668-686.
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Spectacular advanctes in DNA technology have greatly expanded its applicability to forensic science. As the processes become sufficiently sensitive to detect trace DNA, a vast number of crime scene samples not previously considered for analysis are now able to be tested. However, in spite of these obvious benefits, trace DNA analysis raises problems not often considered by investigators and forensic scientists. This paper discusses the history and development of trace DNA analysis. It suggests a trend of underutilisation and discusses issues surrounding its application and alternative uses for the results gained. The approach in the past has been that DNA evidence was solely employed as an absolute form of evidence and consequently, research focused primarily on increasing sensitivity and discrimination power. We are suggesting that DNA evidence should be treated as any other trace evidence. Research to provide data for basic trace evidence properties of deposit, presence, transfer and persisitence may allow trace DNA analysis to be more effectivly utilised in the investigation of crime. Together with recent developments in forensic intelligence, this research could facilitate the progressive applications of trace DNA analysis to volume crime investigations, an outcome wuth the potential to reduce the rate of volume crime and contribute to crime prevention strategies.

Wallace - Kunkel, C.S., Roux, C.P., Lennard, C.J. & Stoilovic, M. 2004, 'The detection and enhancement of latent fingermarks on porous surfaces - a survey', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 687-705.
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Fingerprints are a common form of evidence at crime scenes and can be developed at a crime scene by powdering or by the application of physiochemical methods, such as spray reagents and cyanoacrylate fuming. Research in new ninhydrin analogues has led to the discovery of the fingerprint development potential of 1,2-indanedione. The potential of 1,2-indanedione for latent fingerprint detection on porous surfaces is extremely strong. In this study a survey was conducted of state police laboratories in Australia and New Zealand, as well as members of major fingerprint research groups and laboratories in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Europe to determine the type and frequency of use of fingerprint reagents applied to porous surfaces and to determine the fingerprint community+s awareness and experiences with 1,2-indanedione. Responses to the survey were received from 34 agencies consisting of 28 laboratories from 9 different countries. Survey results indicate that ninhydrin and DFO continue to be the most accepted and commonly used reagents. In total, 11 different reagents were reported to be in use to detect and enhance latent fingermarks on porous surfaces. In addition, even though most fingerprint technicians had heard of the reagent, 1,2-indanedione, only 28 percent had used it in casework. Survey results support the need for systematic research on new or improved fingerprint reagents and detection procedures.

Walsh, S.J., Ribaux, O., Buckleton, J.S., Ross, A.M. & Roux, C.P. 2004, 'DNA profiling and criminal justice - a contribution to a changing debate', Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 34-43.
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Forensic DNA profiling is now a routine feature of the criminal justice system in Australia. Its appliations in this context continue to increase. Technological advancements and the use of DNA databases have facilitated the uptake of biological evidence into criminal investigations. The development of DNA methodology has progressed through discernible phases thay have been paralleled by discussion amongst the legal community. The context of development and the associated debate has changed. It now encompasses broader issues, concerned less specifically with the technology itself and more with the most appropriate means for its use. To contribute more purposefully to this debate and to achieve the most meaningful outcomes from the criminal justice system, we must first understand more holistically the role that DNA evidence plays and the impact that it is capable of. This paper reviews aspects of the forensic and legal contexts of the use of DNA technology in the Justice system. This is a prelude to future research and a justification for the need for such research.

Casamento, S.G., Kwok, B.K., Roux, C.P., Dawson, M. & Doble, P.A. 2003, 'Optimization of the separation of organic explosives by capillary electrophoresis with artificial neural networks', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1075-1083.
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Doble, P.A., Sandercock, P.M., Du Pasquier, E., Petocz, P., Roux, C.P. & Dawson, M. 2003, 'Classification of premium and regular gasoline by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, principal component analysis and artificial neural networks', Forensic Science International, vol. 132, no. 1, pp. 26-39.
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Detection and correct classification of gasoline is important for both arson and fuel spill investigation. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to classify premium and regular gasolines from gas chromatography+mass spectrometry (GC+MS) spectral data obtained from gasoline sold in Canada over one calendar year. Depending upon the dataset used for training and tests, around 80+93% of the samples were correctly classified as either premium or regular gasoline using the Mahalanobis distances calculated from the principal components scores. Only 48+62% of the samples were correctly classified when the premium and regular gasoline samples were divided further into their winter/summer sub-groups. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were trained to recognise premium and regular gasolines from the same GC+MS data. The best-performing ANN correctly identified all samples as either a premium or regular grade. Approximately 97% of the premium and regular samples were correctly classified according to their winter or summer sub-group.

Exline, D.L., Wallace - Kunkel, C.S., Roux, C.P., Lennard, C.J., Nelson, M.P. & Treado, P. 2003, 'Forensic applications of chemical imaging: Latent fingerprint detection using visible absorption and luminescence', Journal Of Forensic Sciences, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1047-1053.
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Jones, N., Lennard, C.J., Stoilovic, M. & Roux, C.P. 2003, 'An evaluation of multimetal deposition II', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 444-479.
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Jones, N., Kelly, M., Stoilovic, M., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2003, 'The development of latent fingerprints on polymer banknotes', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 50-77.
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Polymer (plastic) banknotes have completely replaced traditional paper banknotes in Australia and New Zealand. They are also used in many other countries to varying extents. These banknotes, especially older ones and ones with aged prints, present challenges for latent fingerprint development. A preliminary study examined the effectiveness of a wide range of development techniques but none of the routine detection techniques employed were able to develop prints older than 7 days. In the present study, further research was conducted to optimize a particular development sequence. Australian polymer banknote samples were obtained from the Reserve Bank of Australia. Visual examination of the degree of wear of the printed inks was used to classify the banknotes into five wear categories. Category 1 notes were those with the least wear and category 5 notes were those notes with the most wear. The vacuum metal deposition (VMD) unit used in this research was designed and manufactured specifically for latent fingerprint development. Results show that the recommended procedure for the development of latent prints on polymer banknotes incorporates a particular sequence. The sequence involves optical examination, immediate treatment with cyanoacrylate fuming, examination of the banknote, treatment by VMD, examination and recording of developed prints using diffused reflected light, further treatment by VMD (gold and zinc), luminescent staining, and examination and recording of developed prints. The success of the procedure is affected by the wear of the individual notes. The more worn a note is the less likely good quality prints will be developed.

Langdon, S.M., Maynard, P.J., Robertson, J. & Roux, C.P. 2003, 'An evaluation of the Maxcan fibre finder version 3.3 on cotton fibres', Forensic Science International, vol. 135, no. 2, pp. 137-145.
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The Maxcan fibre finder system is a product of Cox Analytical Systems, Sweden, and has been developed for the primary purpose of searching for fibres on tape lifts. This paper evaluates the ability of the Maxcan system to search for different fibre types and colours under varying conditions. The system performed effectively in most situations, although it did have problems with some search combinations that a human operator would also find difficult in a manual search. The Maxcan system has the added advantages of being objective, consistent and able to do large batch searches unattended. These attributes make it very useful where a large number of tapes need to be searched in casework and also in research where large quantities of data need to be gathered within a reasonable time.

Armitage, S., Saywell, S., Roux, C.P., Lennard, C.J. & Greenwood, P.F. 2001, 'The Analysis of Forensic Samples Using Laser micro-Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 1043-1052.
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Laser micropyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is used for the analysis of paint, photocopier toner, and synthetic fiber materials to test the forensic potential of this emerging technology. It uses a laser microprobe to selectively target very small parts of the materials for GC-MS analysis. Whereas the paint and the toner samples were amenable to direct laser pyrolysis, the synthetic fibers proved transparent to the 1064 nm laser radiation. The difficulty with the fibers demonstrates that a specific laser wavelength may not be appropriate for all types of materials. Nevertheless, the fibers were able to be indirectly pyrolyzed by impregnation in a strongly absorbing graphite matrix. A vast array of hydrocarbon pyrolysates was detected from the different materials studied. Unique product distributions were detected from each sample and in sufficient detail to facilitate individual molecular characterization (i.e., molecular fingerprinting). The integrity of the laser data were confirmed by comparison to data obtained from the same samples by the more conventional pyroprobe pyrolysis GC-MS method. The high spatial resolution and selectivity of the laser method may be advantageous for specific forensic applications, however, further work may be required to improve the reproducibility of the data.

Cantrell, S., Roux, C.P., Maynard, P.J. & Robertson, J. 2001, 'A Textile Fibre Survey as an Aid to the Interpretation of Fibre Evidence in the Sydney Region', Forensic Science International, vol. 123, pp. 48-53.
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Frequency figures of the fibre population on textile cinema seats were measured in Sydney, Australia, in winter. Sixteen seats were analysed from a very popular cinema complex, with 3025 fibres classified according to colour, generic class and fluorescence properties (100 grey black cotton fibres only). The recovered fibres were mostly natural fibres (84%) with cotton the most common generic type (70%). On the contrary, man made fibres were relatively rare (15%) with rayon constituting the majority of these (51%). The most common colour/generic class combinations were grey black cotton (33%) and blue cotton (30%) accounting for 63% of the total population. All other frequencies were below 5%, most below 1% using only the two properties of colour and generic class. Fluorescence properties were found to be very discriminating as far as grey black cotton fibres were concerned. These features are considered and discussed and in particular, to emphasise the significance of fibres as evidence of contact.

Conn, C., Ramsay, G., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2001, 'The Effect of Metal Salt Treatment on the Photoluminescence of DFO-Treated Fingerprints', Forensic Science International, vol. 116, pp. 117-123.
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Ninhydrin developed «ngerprints can be enhanced by treatment with a zinc or cadmium salt. The resulting «ngerprint luminescence has been attributed to the induced coplanarity of the bicyclic indanedione rings of Ruhemann's purple due to complexation with the metal ions. This paper explores whether this effect also occurs in the 1,8-diaza-9-»uorenone (DFO)- amino acid adduct (1), formed from the reaction of DFO with amino acids. Molecular modeling studies of (1) indicate a relatively small out-of-plane angle of 248. 1H NMR studies indicate (1) is asymmetric about the C2 axis in contrast to what has been previously reported. Little, if any, enhancement of luminescence was observed with Zn, Cd, Ru or Eu treated DFO developed latent «ngerprints. This lack of enhancement was also borne out by solution luminescence studies. Given this lack of enhancement of luminescence, solutions of (1) and the four metal ions above were analyzed by electrospray mass spectrometry (ESMS). This indicated the formation of predominantly 1:1 complexes of (1) with both Zn and Cd, and the 2:1 complex with ruthenium. No evidence of a Eu complex was found by ESMS.

Jones, N., Mansour, D., Stoilovic, M., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2001, 'The Influence of Polymer Type Print Donor and Age on the Quality of Fingerprints Developed on Plastic Substrate Using Vacuum Metal Deposition', Forensic Science International, vol. 124, pp. 167-177.
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This study investigated fingerprint development on five different polymer substrates using vacuum metal deposition (VMD). The conditions required for optimum development are shown to depend on a number of factors. No one set of conditions will result in good development in all situations. Polymer type has been confirmed as a major factor in determining the types of development that will occur and the optimum VMD conditions required. For more consistently successful VMD development, polymer type should be determined before selecting conditions. While polymer type is a key factor in determining optimum development conditions, there may be variation of the optimum conditions within a polymer type, most likely due to the presence of additives in the plastic. The heaviness of a latent print, i.e. amount of residue that constitutes the print, also affects the VMD conditions required. The donor, manner of deposition, and age of a print affect the heaviness of the deposit. The heavier the print, the higher the gold count necessary for successful VMD development. The occurrence of empty prints (i.e. zinc deposition on the general background but not on or between the print ridges) was found to be related to polymer type and print heaviness. Heavy prints on PVC and PET are the most likely to be empty after VMD treatment. The development of empty prints may be due to the diffusion of print residue into the print valleys. Pre-treatment with cyanoacrylate fuming was also found to affect VMD development. In particular, it was shown that cyanoacrylate pre-treatment was beneficial for print development on PET and PVC. The results of this study were used to formulate guidelines for use as an aid by laboratories using VMD in casework.

Jones, N., Stoilovic, M., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2001, 'Vacuum Metal Deposition: Developing Latent Fingerprints on Polyethylene Substrates After th Deposition of Excess Gold', Forensic Science International, vol. 123, pp. 5-12.
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Jones, N., Stoilovic, M., Lennard, C.J. & Roux, C.P. 2001, 'Vacuum Metal Deposition: Factors Affecting Normal and Reverse Development of Latent Fingerprints on Polyethylene Substrates', Forensic Science International, vol. 115, no. 1, pp. 73-88.
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Vacuum metal deposition (VMD) is an established technique for the development of latent fingerprints on non-porous surfaces. VMD has advantages over cyanoacrylate fuming, especially in circumstances where prints are old, have been exposed to adverse environmental conditions, or are present on semi-porous surfaces. Under normal circumstances, VMD produces `negative+ prints as zinc deposits onto the background substrate and not the print ridges themselves. A phenomenon of `reverse+ development, when zinc deposits onto the print ridges and not the background, has been reported by many authors but its causes have not been conclusively identified. Four plastic substrates were used in this study and these could be easily divided into two groups based on the types of development observed as the amount of deposited gold was increased. On group I plastics, identified as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), normal development then reverse development and finally no development resulted with increasing gold. On group II plastics, identified as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), normal development then over-development and finally poor-quality normal development resulted with increasing gold. Our results suggest that the difference between these plastic types causes variations in the gold film structure which in turn dictates the nature of the zinc deposition. On group I plastics, the structure and thickness of the gold film has been identified as the critical factor in the occurrence of normal or reverse development. Thin gold films on plastic substrates form small `clusters+ (or agglomerates) rather than the atoms being uniformly spread over the surface. The size and shape of these clusters is critical. Once the clusters reach a certain morphology, they no longer act as nucleation sites for zinc, and hence, zinc will not deposit onto the substrate.

Maynard, P.J., Allwell, K., Roux, C.P., Dawson, M. & Royds, D. 2001, 'A Protocol for the Forensic Analysis of Condom and Personal Lubricants Found in Sexual Assault Cases', Forensic Science International, vol. 124, pp. 140-156.
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Maynard, P.J., Gates, K., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2001, 'Adhesive Tape Analysis: Establishing th Evidential Value of Specific Techniques', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 280-287.
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This study investigated the evidential value of specific methods of analysis for packaging tapes and clear adhesive tapes available in Australia. Fifty-eight adhesive tapes were analyzed using a wide range of optical, physical, and chemical techniques. The results were collated for the purpose of creating an Australian database of adhesive tapes, which would be of assistance in criminal investigation. Each technique was evaluated for its discriminating power, both for comparative purposes and for the identification of adhesive tapes by comparing unknown samples with the database. The combined discriminating power of the techniques applied is very high. It is possible to individually identify the source of an unknown adhesive tape sample in many instances by searching the database. It is also possible to form an opinion on the significance of a failure-to-discriminate result in comparative casework. Further work is still needed to expand and update the database, as well as compiling data on the relative market share of various products.

Roux, C.P., Huttunen, J.E., Rampling, K. & Robertson, J. 2001, 'Factors Affecting the potential for the Fibre Contamination in Purpose-Designed Forensic Search Rooms', Science & Justice, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 135-144.
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Roux, C.P., Kirk, R., Benson, S.J., Van Haren, T. & Petterd, C. 2001, 'Glass Particles in Footwear of members of the Public in South Eastern Australia - A Survey', Forensic Science International, vol. 116, pp. 149-156.
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A total of 776 pairs of shoes collected from random members of the public in south-eastern Australia were examined for the presence of glass fragments. From the samples collected a total of 110 fragments were recovered from 57 pairs of shoes (7.3% of the pairs examined). This study shows that the prevalence of glass fragments in footwear is dependent upon the area of the shoe from which the fragments were recovered. A much higher percentage of shoes were found to have fragments embedded in the sole (5.9%) than in the upper area of the shoe (1.9%). These shoes were also more likely to have multiple fragments from multiple sources of glass. Only a very small percentage of shoes contained fragments in both the upper and the sole (0.3%). These «ndings and their signi«cance for the interpretation of glass evidence involving footwear are discussed in this study.

Maynard, P.J., Gates, K., Roux, C.P. & Lennard, C.J. 2000, 'Adhesive Taper Analysis: Establishing the Evidential Value of Specific Techniques', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 280-287.

Roux, C.P., Jones, N., Lennard, C.J. & Stoilovic, M. 2000, 'Evaluation of 1,2-Indanedione and 5,6-Dimethoxy-1,2-Indanedione for the Detection of Latent Fingerprints on Porous Surfaces', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 761-769.

Roux, C.P., Kirk, R., Benson, S.J., Van Haran, T. & Petterd, C. 2000, 'Glass Particles in Footwear of Members of the Public in South-Eastern Australia - A Survey', Forensic Science International, vol. 116, no. 0, pp. 149-156.

Roux, C.P., Bull, S., Goulding, J. & Lennard, C.J. 2000, 'Tracing the Source of Illicit Drugs Through Plastic Packaging - a Database', Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 99-114.
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Common plastic drug packaging material available in Australia and in Asia was analyzed using a standard protocol including optical examination, UV-visible and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. The aims were to determine whether there are significant differences between different sources, to establish the evidential value of these examinations, and to build a database of common packaging material. Visual examination was the most effective means for discriminating samples. Thickness and weight measurements provided useful information. Visualization of machining marks using crossed polarized light was found to be useful in the comparison process. UV-visible spectrophotometry has some value for distinguishing samples. Fourier transform infrared analysis was a good technique for determination of the polymer composition of the packaging. Significant differences were observed between Australian and overseas samples. The "Australian Database of Drug Packaging Materials" was created to systematically collate all of the collected data for application on personal computers. It is concluded that the properties of plastic packaging materials can be excellent indicators for identifying the specfic brand or origin of the packaging.

Roux, C.P., Gill, K., Sutton, J. & Lennard, C.J. 1999, 'A further study to investigate the effect of fingerprint enhancement techniques on the DNA analysis of bloodstains', Journal of Forensic Identification, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 357-376.
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This study investigated the effect of common and well established fingerprint enhancement techniques on the subsequent DNA analysis of items potentially bearing both fingerprints and biological evidence. Bloodstains of varying ages were prepared on different surfaces and various fingerprint enhancement techniques were applied to the samples. DNA typing was performed using PCR amplification (D1S80 and CTT system). The results showed that magnetic powder, multimetal deposition (MMD) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation are not recommended for use in a sequence of analyses involving DNA typing. Strong white light, white and aluminum fingerprint powders, physical developer (PD) after 1,8-diaza-9-fluorenone (DFO), PD after ninhydrin with cadmium (Cd) salt treatment, and cyanoacrylate with gentian violet or Ardrox stains may be used successfully in a sequence of analyses involving DNA typing. Ninhydrin with secondary metal salt treatment, DFO, amido black, diaminobenzidine (DAB), black powder, Stickyside Powder, cyanoacrylate with rhodamine stain, and luminol may be used before DNA analysis but care must be taken to ensure that sufficient DNA is extracted and analyzed.

Mazzella, W.D., Roux, C.P., Lennard, C.J. 1995, 'The computer-assisted identification of colour photocopiers', Science & Justice, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 117-125.
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The number of counterfeiting and forgery cases involving colour photocopiers has increased significantly over the last few years. Colour photocopies, produced on 45 different models available on the European market, were therefore studied in order to isolate corresponding identification elements that could be exploited by the document examiner. The photocopied-documents were subjected to a series of optical examinations, at different magnifications and under different illumination conditions. In addition, toner samples were extracted from each photocopy and analysed by diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS). The results obtained permitted the construction of a computerized database that can be used to identify a particular model (or group of models) that may have been used to produce a forged or counterfeit document.