Professor William Gladstone

Gladstone, W. 2009, 'Conservation and management of tropical coastal ecosystems' in I Nagelkerken (ed), Ecological Connectivity among Tropical Coastal Ecosystems, Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp. 565-605.
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All major coastal ecosystems in the tropics are being degraded. The problems include losses of biodiversity, reduced ecosystem functions, and costs to coastal human societies. Declines in species´+¢ abundances, and habitat loss and modi?cation are the result of the demands for aquaculture, port construction, trawling, excessive nutrient loads, over?shing and collecting, sedimentation from catchment activities, invasive species, and climate change. A global response to these changes has been conservation and management approaches that aim to reduce, reverse, and prevent unnatural changes and address their underlying causes. Successes in conservation and management are likely when actions are designed to achieve the fundamental ecological goals of ensuring resilience, maintaining ecosystem connectivity, protecting water quality, conserving species-at-risk, conserving representative samples of species and assemblages, and managing at the appropriate spatial scale. Achieving societal aspirations for coastal ecosystems requires that management approaches address the socio-economic aspects of issues and include stakeholder consultation, participation, and education

Alexander, T.J. & Gladstone, W. 2013, 'Assessing the effectiveness of a long-standing rocky intertidal protected area and its contribution to the regional conservation of species, habitats and assemblages', Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, vol. 23, pp. 111-123.

Cvitanovic, C., Wilson, S.K., Fulton, C.J., Almany, G.R., Anderson, P., Babcock, R.C., Ban, N.C., Beeden, R.J., Beger, M., Cinner, J., Dobbs, K., Evans, L.S., Farnham, A., Friedman, K.J., Gale, K., Gladstone, W., Grafton, Q., Graham, N.A., Gudge, S., Harrison, P.L., Holmes, T.H., Johnstone, N., Jones, G.P., Jordan, A., Kendrick, A.J., Klein, C.J., Little, L.R., Malcolm, H.A., Morris, D., Possingham, H.P., Prescott, J., Pressey, R.L., Skilleter, G.A., Simpson, C., Waples, K., Wilson, D. & Williamson, D.H. 2013, 'Critical research needs for managing coral reef marine protected areas: Perspectives of academics and managers', Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 114, pp. 84-91.
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Shokri, M.R. & Gladstone, W. 2013, 'Limitations of habitats as biodiversity surrogates for conservation planning in estuaries', Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 185, pp. 3477-3492.
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Courtenay, G.C., Smith, D. & Gladstone, W. 2012, 'Occupational health issues in marine and freshwater research', Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 1-11.
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Marine and freshwater scientists are potentially exposed to a wide variety of occupational hazards. Depending on the focus of their research, risks may include animal attacks, physiological stresses, exposure to toxins and carcinogens, and dangerous environmental conditions. Many of these hazards have been investigated amongst the general population in their recreational use of the environment; however, very few studies have specifically related potential hazards to occupational exposure. For example, while the incidence of shark and crocodile attacks may invoke strong emotions and the occupational risk of working with these animals is certainly real, many more people are stung by jellyfish or bitten by snakes or dogs each year. Furthermore, a large proportion of SCUBA-related injuries and deaths are incurred by novice or uncertified divers, rather than professional divers using aquatic environments. Nonetheless, marine and freshwater research remains a potentially risky occupation, and the likelihood of death, injury and long-term health impacts still needs to be seriously considered.

Gladstone, W., Lindfield, S., Coleman, M.A. & Kelaher, B.P. 2012, 'Optimisation of baited remote underwater video sampling designs for estuarine fish assemblages', Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, vol. 429, pp. 28-35.
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Baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS) are used for monitoring fish assemblages and assessing management effectiveness in reef environments but are infrequently used in estuaries. A review of the BRUVS literature found that most adopted sampling designs from other studies were rarely designed from pilot studies. This potentially compromises their value for monitoring natural and anthropogenic variation. The aims of this study were: (i) to assess the suitability of BRUVS for sampling fishes in estuarine habitats (seagrass beds and unvegetated sediments) and (ii) to develop an optimal and cost effective sampling methodology for each habitat. Fishes in both habitats were sampled independently using BRUVS with soak times of 30, 60, 90 min (n = 4). Thirty five species of fishes were recorded including 18 species of economic importance. Mean number of species, mean total Max N and mean Max N of species did not differ among soak times. Precision was generally greater in seagrass and in both habitats it improved with increasing soak time. Bootstrapping revealed that greater improvements in precision occurred from increasing soak time rather than increasing replication. A sampling design with n = 5 replicates of 90 min soak time was optimal for most variables. This sampling effort is greater than many current applications of BRUVS. The results highlight the importance of pilot studies to optimise sampling methods and develop cost effective and statistically-robust monitoring programs.

Harasti, D.I., Martin-smith, K. & Gladstone, W. 2012, 'Population dynamics and life history of a geographically restricted seahorse, Hippocampus whitei', Journal Of Fish Biology, vol. 81, no. 4, pp. 1297-1314.
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The aim of this study was to collect data on population dynamics and life history for White's seahorse Hippocampus whitei, a geographically restricted species that is listed as data deficient under the IUCN Red List. Data from H. whitei populations were collected from two regions, Port Stephens (north) and Sydney Harbour (south) in New South Wales, Australia, covering most of the known range of H. whitei, from 2005 to 2010. Over 1000 individuals were tagged using fluorescent elastomer and on subsequent recaptures were re-measured for growth data that were used in a forced GullandÔ++Holt plot to develop growth parameters for use in a specialized von Bertalanffy growth-function model. Growth parameters for Port Stephens were: females LÔ++ = 149-À2 mm and K = 2-À034 per year and males LÔ++ = 147-À9 mm and K = 2-À520 per year compared with estimates from Sydney Harbour: females LÔ++ = 139-À8 mm and K = 1-À285 per year and males LÔ++ = 141-À6 mm and K = 1-À223 per year. Whilst there was no significant difference in growth between sexes for each region, H. whitei in Port Stephens grew significantly quicker and larger and matured and reproduced at a younger age than those from Sydney Harbour. The life span of H. whitei is at least 5 years in the wild with six individuals recorded reaching this age. Data collected on breeding pairs found that H. whitei displays life-long monogamy with three pairs observed remaining pair bonded over three consecutive breeding years. Baseline population densities were derived for two Port Stephens' sites (0-À035 and 0-À110 mÔ++2) and for Manly in Sydney Harbour (1-À050 mÔ++2). Even though the life-history parameters of H. whitei suggest it may be reasonably resilient, precaution should be taken in its future management as a result of its limited geographical distribution and increasing pressures from anthropogenic sources on its habitats.

Voyer, M., Gladstone, W. & Goodall, H. 2012, 'Methods of social assessment in Marine Protected Area planning: Is public participation enough?', Marine Policy, vol. 36, pp. 432-439.
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Addressing social and economic considerations is crucial to the success of Marine Protected Area (MPA) planning and management. Ineffective social assessment can alienate local communities and under- mine the success of existing and future MPAs. It is rare to critique the success of methods used currently to incorporate social and economic considerations into MPA planning. Three Australian MPA planning processes covering three states and incorporating federal and state jurisdictions are reviewed in order to determine how potential social impacts were assessed and considered. These case studies indicate that Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is under-developed in Australian MPA planning. Assessments rely heavily on public participation and economic modelling as surrogates for dedicated SIA and are followed commonly by attitudinal surveys to gauge public opinion on the MPA after its establishment. The emergence of issues around public perception of the value of MPAs indicates the failure of some of these proposals to adequately consider social factors in planning and management. This perception may have potential implications for the long term success of individual MPAs. It may also compromise Australia's ability to meet international commitments for MPA targets to gazette at least 10% of all its marine habitats as MPAs. Indeed, this is demonstrated in two of the three case studies where social and economic arguments against MPAs have been used to delay or block the future expansion of the MPA network.

Courtenay, G., Gladstone, W., Scammell, M., Kidson, R. & Wood, J. 2011, 'The influence of estuarine water quality on cover of barnacles and Enteromorpha spp.', Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 175, no. 1-4, pp. 685-697.
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The influence of ambient water quality on the settlement of barnacles and the green alga Enteromorpha spp. to an artificial substratum in the estuaries of Sydney, Australia, was investigated to test the efficacy of both groups of organisms as indicators of changes in water quality due to urban stormwater runoff and/or sewage overflows. Wooden settlement panels were immersed for 4 months on 17 occasions between 1996 and 2005 at 11 locations known to vary in water-quality parameters (conductivity, total uncombined ammonia, oxidised nitrogen, total nitrogen, filterable phosphorus, total phosphorus, faecal coliforms and chlorophyll-a) and ambient meteorological conditions (total rainfall, maximum rainfall). Water-quality data were collected during the time that the settlement panels were deployed. Cover of barnacles was highly variable among locations (range 1.2+55.2%). Hierarchical partitioning found that chlorophyll-a, total phosphorus and total nitrogen had significant independent positive effects on barnacle cover. Together, these variables explained 26% of the variation in barnacle cover. Mean cover of Enteromorpha spp., however, did not vary significantly among locations suggesting that other potentially more important factors are influencing its settlement and growth. The results of this study suggest that barnacle cover is likely to be a useful indicator of some components of water quality.

Morton, J.K. & Gladstone, W. 2011, 'Spatial, temporal and ontogenetic variation in the association of fishes (family Labridae) with rocky-reef habitats', Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 62, no. 7, pp. 870-884.
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Habitat variability is an important factor structuring fish assemblages of rocky reefs in temperate Australia. Accepting the generality of this model requires that habitat-related variation is consistent through time, across multiple spatial scales, and applies to all life-history stages. We used repeated underwater visual surveys at multiple spatial scales over a 22-month period to test whether three distinct rocky-reef habitats had different wrasse assemblages and whether these assemblages were subject to spatial, temporal and ontogenetic variability. Overall, the strongest and most consistent habitat association was with sponge gardens, which had the most distinct assemblage, and the greatest species richness and density of individuals. Habitat associations in fringe and barrens were less consistent. A substantial increase in the abundance of small individuals, coinciding with warmer sea temperatures, contributed to temporal fluctuations in the density of wrasses. Overall, habitats were not strongly partitioned among larger individuals of the most abundant species, suggesting that adults are largely habitat generalists whereas small, recruiting individuals showed greater habitat specialisation. The present study emphasises the importance of incorporating spatial, temporal and ontogenetic variability into surveys of fish assemblages to understand more fully the dynamics of temperate rocky-reef systems

Powter, D.M., Gladstone, W. & Platell, M.E. 2010, 'The influence of sex and maturity on the diet, mouth morphology and dentition of the Port Jackson shark, Heterodontus portusjacksoni', Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 74-85.
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Dietary studies are essential for an understanding of elasmobranch ecology and their role in marine ecosystems. The diet, head morphology and dentition of Heterodontus portusjacksoni, an abundant, epibenthic shark in the coastal waters of temperate eastern Australia, were examined in 2004+2005. The stomach contents of the juvenile, subadult and adult stages of 136 males and 100 females were examined. Diets were broad (32 prey taxa), but dominated by molluscs, teleosts and cephalopods. Analyses of stomach contents data demonstrated that diet differed significantly by ontogenetic stage, but not by sex. Juveniles and subadults consumed mainly benthic infauna and epifauna, with subadults ingesting greater amounts of diogenid crustaceans, and adult diets dominated by demersal/pelagic prey. Trophic level differed ontogenetically, from secondary consumers as juveniles and subadults to tertiary consumers as adults. The mainly tricuspidate juvenile dentition changed with maturity to a greater proportion of large molariform distal teeth, whereas the snout and jaw lengthened and broadened. Adult males retained a greater proportion of anterior S-family teeth than females, which was most likely related to copulation. The ontogenetic variation in dietary composition, facilitated by differences in dentition and mouth morphology, demonstrated that dietary resources were partitioned ontogenetically.

Powter, D.M. & Gladstone, W. 2009, 'Habitat-mediated use of space by juvenile and mating adult Port Jackson sharks, Heterodontus portusjacksoni, in Eastern Australia', Pacific Science, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 1-14.
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Studies of spatial ecology of demersal sharks are critical to understanding the significance of habitat variation; however, limited information exists. Spatial ecology of adult Heterodontus portusjacksoni was studied at three locations on the central and southern coast of New South Wales, Australia, from January 2002 to December 2005. Juveniles within a nursery area were studied from December 2002 to December 2005. Tag-recapture, day and night underwater visual census, and acoustic tagging were used. Adults returned annually to the same coastal breeding reefs for up to four consecutive years. Individual juveniles resided within a sea-grass nursery area for at least 2 yr and were not uniformly distributed throughout the nursery. Adult females often sheltered in aggregations in gutters as a male avoidance strategy, and both sexes utilized the sand/reef interface in the absence of gutters. Juveniles aggregated infrequently due to absence of habitat features that mediated aggregation. Acoustic tracks of adults revealed periods of inactivity up to 27 hr. Juveniles spent significant amounts of time inactive, punctuated with short bouts of swimming. Juveniles utilized moderate activity spaces (3,510-583,990 m^sup 2^) centered over a core area of the sea-grass bed but also ranged over much larger areas of the bay. Use of space by H. portusjacksoni is strongly influenced by habitat characteristics throughout its life history.

Shokri, M.R., Gladstone, W. & Kepert, A. 2009, 'Annelids, arthropods or molluscs are suiable as surrogate taxa for selecting conservation reserves in estuaries', Biodiversity and conservation, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 1117-1130.
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The urgent need to conserve aquatic biodiversity and the lack of spatial data on biodiversity has motivated conservation planners and researchers to search for more readily obtainable information that could be used as proxies or surrogates. The surrogate taxon approach shows promise in some aquatic environments (e.g. intertidal) but not others (e.g. coral reefs, temperate rocky reefs). Estuaries are transitional environments at the land+sea junction with a unique biodiversity, but are the most threatened of aquatic environments because of high levels of human use. The comparatively small numbers of conservation reserves means that estuarine biodiversity is poorly protected. Selecting additional conservation reserves within estuaries would be facilitated by the identification of a suitable surrogate that could be used in conservation planning. In one estuary in Southeast Australia, we evaluated separately the effectiveness of annelids, arthropods, and molluscs as surrogates for predicting the species richness, abundance, assemblage variation, and summed irreplaceability of other species and for coincidentally representing other species in networks of conservation reserves selected for each surrogate. Spatial patterns in the species richness and assemblage variation (but not summed irreplaceability) of each surrogate were significantly correlated with the spatial patterns of other species.

Shokri, M.R. & Gladstone, W. 2009, 'Higher taxa are effective surrogates for species in the selection of conservation reserves in estuaries', Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 626-636.
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1. The lack of information about marine biodiversity is problematic for the selection of conservation reserves that aim to protect representative samples of biodiversity. A number of surrogate measures for biodiversity have been suggested as a potential solution to this problem. 2. The present study tested the effectiveness of using higher taxa of macroinvertebrates as a surrogate for species-level identification to depict spatial variation in species richness and assemblage variation and to select conservation reserves in one estuary in south-east Australia. 3. Spatial patterns of richness and assemblage variation for species were significantly correlated with patterns defined from genera, families, orders, classes, and phyla with a decline in the magnitude of correlation coefficients from finer to coarser resolutions. A network of reserves selected to include representatives of all phyla, classes, orders, families and genera coincidentally included 54%, 61.7%, 75%, 92.6%, 98.8% species in 8.3%, 13.9%, 17.7%, 44.4% and 58.3% of grid cells, respectively. However, only reserves selected for genera, families and orders performed significantly better than random selection. 4. Percentage of species represented by orders, families and genera in a realistic level of available grid cells for conservation (i.e. 13.9%) were very close ranging between 70 and 73.5%. A factor diminishing the performance of order as surrogate for species richness was related to the difficulty of identifying many macroinvertebrates to the order level. Therefore, it is concluded that genus- and family-level identification is an effective surrogate for species-level identification for conservation planning in estuaries. Copyright ® 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Shokri, M.R., Gladstone, W. & Jelbart, J. 2009, 'The effectiveness of seahorses and pipefish (Pisces: Syngnathidae) as a flagship group to evaluate the conservation value of estuarine seagrass beds', Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 588-595.
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1. Syngnathids (Pisces, Syngnathidae: seahorses and pipefish) were investigated for their use as a flagship group to evaluate the conservation value of estuarine seagrass beds in estuaries in south-east Australia. Some species of syngnathids are listed internationally as vulnerable or endangered, and they are a charismatic group of fish that attracts a high level of public support and sympathy. Syngnathids are also protected in several states of Australia. Conservation of syngnathids might provide coincidental benefits to other species that share their habitats. 2. The effectiveness of syngnathids as a flagship group was assessed by (1) testing for correlations with other fish in species richness, density, assemblage variation, and summed irreplaceability value, and (2) determining the number of species of all other fish coincidentally captured in marine protected areas (MPAs) selected for syngnathids. The study was undertaken in a single estuary (scale: tens of square kilometres) and across multiple estuaries (scale: hundreds of square kilometres). 3. Densities of syngnathids and other fish were correlated only at the scale of multiple estuaries. Species richness and summed irreplaceability of syngnathids and other fish were not spatially correlated. Spatial variations in assemblages of syngnathids and other fish were correlated. MPAs selected for syngnathids included more non-syngnathid species than a random selection of locations. 4. This study provides evidence that ranking the conservation value of seagrass beds on the basis of the density and assemblage variation of syngnathids, and selecting MPAs to represent syngnathid species, will simultaneously benefit other fish. Synganthids are therefore regarded as a useful flagship group for conservation planning.

Chivers, W.J., Gladstone, W. & Herbert, R.D. 2008, 'Spatial effects in an individual-based model of the interaction of species at different trophic levels', Natural Resource Modeling, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 72-92.
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In this paper, we describe an individual-based model of the interaction between a producer and herbivore species. The interaction occurs in a 2-dimensional matrix of individual cells. The producer organism grows in the cells and the herbivores move between the cells, towards areas of high concentration of producer. Herbivores may die of starvation or they may reproduce asexually. The model is not built to represent a specific existing system but is a parsimonious generalized model of producer+herbivore interaction designed to test spatial effects.

Momtaz, S. & Gladstone, W. 2008, 'Ban on commercial fishing in the estuarine waters of New South Wales, Australia: Community consultation and social impacts', Environmental Impact Assessment Review, vol. 28, no. 2-3, pp. 214-225.
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In its effort to resolve the conflict between commercial and recreational fishers the New South Wales (NSW) government (NSW Fisheries) banned commercial fishing in the estuarine waters. The NSW Fisheries conducted a number of studies and held meetings with the affected communities including commercial fishers prior to the implementation of the ban. To investigate how community consultation played a role in the decision-making process especially as perceived by the commercial fishers and to determine actual social impacts of the ban on commercial fishers, in-depth interviews were conducted with the commercial fishers. This research reveals that despite the NSW Fisheries' consultations with commercial fishers prior to the closure, the latter were confused about various vital aspects of the decision. It further reveals that, the commercial fishers faced a number of significant changes as a result of this decision. We argue that a better decision-making process and outcome would have been possible through a meaningful consultation with the commercial fishers and a social impact assessment.

Morton, J.K., Gladstone, W., Hughes, J.M. & Stewart, J. 2008, 'Comparison of the life histories of three co-occurring wrasses (Teleostei: Labridae) in coastal waters of south-eastern Australia', Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 59, no. 7, pp. 560-574.
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Labrids are abundant on temperate rocky reefs yet their life histories are poorly known. Three co-occurring Australian labrids (Ophthalmolepis lineolatus, Notolabrus gymnogenis and Pictilabrus laticlavius) exhibited protogynous hermaphroditism typical of labrids. Juveniles reached sexual maturity at 184 mm total length (TL) (2.1 years) in O. lineolatus, 177 mm TL (1.8 years) in N. gymnogenis and <95 mm TL (<0.9 years) in P. laticlavius. Individuals were sexually active initial phase females until changing to a terminal phase male at 295 mm TL (5.2 years) in O. lineolatus, 273 mm TL (4.5 years) in N. gymnogenis and 138 mm TL (2.0 years) in P. laticlavius. The occurrence of males only at greater lengths and older ages suggests that O. lineolatus and N. gymnogenis are monandrous, whereas P. laticlavius appears to be diandrous. Reproduction was asynchronous among species with reproductive activity peaking in January+March for O. lineolatus, April+October for N. gymnogenis and October+December for P. laticlavius. Sectioned otoliths revealed that O. lineolatus and N. gymnogenis grew rapidly to 300 mm TL (6 years) and P. laticlavius to 180 mm TL (3 years). Longevity was at least 13.8, 9.6 and 4.8 years respectively. These life history data will aid management of these frequently harvested species.

Morton, J.K., Platell, M.E. & Gladstone, W. 2008, 'Differences in feeding ecology among three co-occurring species of wrasse (Teleostei: Labridae) on rocky reefs of temperate Australia', Marine Biology, vol. 154, no. 3, pp. 577-592.
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The foraging behaviours and dietary compositions of three co-occurring labrids (Ophthalmolepis lineolatus, Notolabrus gymnogenis and Pictilabrus laticlavius), which are conspicuous on rocky reefs in temperate south-eastern Australia, were investigated between 2003 and 2005. SCUBA observations at two locations showed that the feeding intensity, and hence the associated effects of these fishes on rocky reef invertebrate prey, was temporally consistent. Relative differences in the contributions of ingested prey and use of different feeding microhabitats demonstrated that the feeding ecology differed significantly among the three species. Thus, O. lineolatus fed on proportionately higher volumes of polychaetes, polyplacophorans, marginellid gastropods (especially Austroginella sp.), bivalves and echinoids, which were sighted opportunistically in a wide selection of microhabitats, but particularly in sand/rubble. Ambush hunting was used regularly by smaller N. gymnogenis and all sizes of P. laticlavius to forage on amphipods, small decapods and small gastropods at algal bases or fronds and Diopatra dentata tubes. Amphipods were similarly important in the diet of smaller O. lineolatus.

Powter, D.M. & Gladstone, W. 2008, 'Demographic analysis of the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni in the coastal waters of eastern Australia', Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 59, pp. 444-455.
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Demographic analyses are used to assess the status and vulnerability of elasmobranchs but their accuracy is often affected by limited basic biological information. Although the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni (Meyer) is currently not considered at threat, there is insufficient data for eastern Australia to assess this rigorously. The present study determined vital demographic rates of adult and juvenile H. portusjacksoni at four locations on the central and southern coast of New South Wales, Australia from January 2002 to December 2005 using underwater visual census, tag+recapture and samples obtained from a commercial fishery. Natural mortality was low in adults (0.063+0.074 year+1) and juveniles (0.225 year+1), but substantial at the embryonic stage (0.783+0.896 year+1). Adult growth rates (31.4+32.7 mm year+1) were slightly less than that of juveniles (36.8+37.5 mm year+1). Males at both stages grew slightly faster than females. However, H. portusjacksoni had slower growth rates than many other elasmobranch species. Having a low intrinsic rate of increase (r = 0.069 year+1), long generation times (Á1 = 22.5 year) and a low rebound potential, adults are the stage with the greatest impact on population growth. Hence, their life history strategy makes them susceptible to serious decline under exploitation, and management should strive to maintain the adult reproductive stock as a priority.

Powter, D.M. & Gladstone, W. 2008, 'Embryonic mortality and predation on egg capsules of the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni (Meyer)', Journal Of Fish Biology, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 573-584.
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Egg capsules of the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni were examined during underwater visual census surveys at two sites in New South Wales, Australia, during the 2002+2005 reproductive seasons (austral winter). Embryonic mortality was high (0À783+0À896 per annum) with the majority (99À2%) resulting from predation. The crested horn shark Heterodontus galeatus and common tent shell Astralium tentoriformis (Gastropoda, Turbinidae) were positively identified as egg predators. Gastropod predation was insignificant, accounting for only 2À0 and 2À1% of total mortality at Terrigal Haven and Dent Rock, respectively. Most capsules appeared to have been depredated by large predatory fishes with the eastern blue groper Achoerodus viridis (Labridae) and the black stingray Dasyatis thetidis (Dasyatidae) as possible candidate predators. The rate of embryonic mortality in H. portusjacksoni is higher than that reported for other oviparous elasmobranchs. This high level of mortality has significant consequences for the conservation and management of this species, especially when combined with an understanding of their low fecundity, late maturity and protracted reproductive life.

Powter, D.M. & Gladstone, W. 2008, 'Habitat preferences of Port Jackson Sharks, Heterodontus portusjacksoni, in the coastal waters of Eastern Australia', Proceedings Of The Linnean Society Of New South Wales, vol. 129, pp. 151-165.
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The habitat preferences of juvenile and adult Heterodontus portusjacksoni and ovipositing females were determined from three locations on the central and southern coast of New South Wales. Adults use shallow coastal rocky reefs in July-November for mating and oviposition, whilst juveniles occupy a seagrass nursery in a large coastal embayment. The sand/reef interface on the lee side of reefs was preferred by both sexes, probably as a refuge against strong water movements. Adult females also preferred rocky gutters when available, possibly as a male avoidance strategy. Preferred oviposition sites were narrow, shallow crevices (single capsules) or deep, narrow crevices (multiple capsules) which afforded protection against mechanical dislocation and/or predation. Juveniles exhibited a strong preference for the seagrass bed edge within a shallow nursery area. The visual complexity of this habitat combined with the juvenile's disruptive colouration may provide a refuge from predation, whilst proximity to the seagrass may provide ease of access for foraging. At a large scale, juveniles preferred areas of moderate slope within the nursery that provided protection from strong water movement. This study highlights the need for quantitative studies addressing habitat preferences and a consideration of use-specific factors to fully understand the selection of habitat by elasmobranchs

Powter, D.M. & Gladstone, W. 2008, 'The reproductive biology and ecology of the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni in the coastal waters of eastern Australia', Journal Of Fish Biology, vol. 72, no. 10, pp. 2615-2633.
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The reproductive biology and ecology of the Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni was investigated at three locations on the central and southern coast of New South Wales (NSW), Australia from January 2002 to December 2005 using underwater visual census surveys and samples obtained from a commercial fishery. Adults displayed sexual dimorphism in total length (LT) at sexual maturity, with males maturing between 762 and 772 mm LT and females between 902 and 905 mm LT. The mean ovarian fecundity was estimated at 16 offspring per female but was unrelated to female LT. Male gonado-somatic (IG) and hepato-somatic (IH) indices and female IG declined from July to November as did maximum ovarian follicle diameter and the diameter of the three largest follicles. Adults were absent from inshore reefs between December and July. Hence, H. portusjacksoni has a synchronous annual breeding season in NSW, which occurs between July and November (the austral winter to spring), with a peak in oviposition from August to October. Heterodontus portusjacksoni copulatory and ovipository behaviour are reported for the first time. Copulation was observed and involved oral grasping of the female+s pectoral fin by a single male, which wrapped his body around hers to insert one clasper. Ovipositing females appeared to search crevices in the reef prior to delivering a single capsule, which was washed into the crevice by water movement, with the female departing very soon after oviposition. This study represents the first rigorously quantitative analysis of H. portusjacksoni reproductive biology and ecology in NSW waters

Chivers, W.J., Herbert, R.D. & Gladstone, W. 2007, 'Within-generational and diversity-dependent effects in an individual-based model of predator-prey interaction', Natural Resource Modeling, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 405-413.
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In this paper we report the use of an individual-based model of predator-prey interaction to explore the effects of +within generational+ and `between generational+ updating of a system level variable. We also report the importance of diversity within the simulated populations. Our findings support those of Grimm and Uchmßnski [1994] in regard to the importance of the timing of system level variables, and support Grimm and Uchma±ski and others in regard to the importance of the level of diversity across the population. The significance of these findings is emphasized by the fundamental differences between our model and that of Grimm and Uchmßnski in regard to the assumptions made about resource flow in the system.

Gladstone, W. 2007, 'Requirements for marine protected areas to conserve the biodiversity of rocky reef fishes', Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, vol. 17, pp. 71-87.
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This study describes spatial patterns in the biodiversity (species, assemblages) of rocky reef fishes at a spatial scale relevant to management, and compared the outcomes for this biodiversity from alternative procedures for selecting marine protected areas (MPAs) and from the selection of MPAs for fisheries-related objectives. 2. The study area included 104 species in two assemblage types; 36 species and 14 species occurred only in one or two locations respectively. 3. MPAs selected by hotspot richness, greedy richness complementarity, and summed irreplaceability included similar percentages of species and signi?cantly more species than randomly selected MPAs. A combined species-assemblage selection ensured representation of assemblage diversity. Representation of all species and assemblage types required 92% of locations. 4. MPAs chosen using density of all fishes or density of exploitable ?shes as selection criteria included fewer species (than MPAs selected using species identity) and the percentage of species accumulated did not di?er from a random selection. 5. Use of an established MPA as the seed for an expanded network was inefficient, leading to additional locations being required and an accumulation of species that did not di?er from a random selection. 6. The smallest MPA network that fulfilled multiple management objectives (representation of assemblage diversity and majority of species, population viability, support for fisheries, connectivity) required 30% of the surveyed locations

Gladstone, W. 2007, 'Selection of a spawning aggregation site by Chromis hypsilepis (Pisces: Pomacentridae): habitat structure, transport potential, and food availability', Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol. 351, pp. 235-247.
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Spawning aggregations form when fishes migrate to a site from their normal feeding grounds and form temporary groupings for breeding. Spawning aggregation sites are spatially rare, and demonstrating differences between a spawning aggregation site and unselected sites nearby is the first step towards understanding the benefits provided by the aggregation site. Chromis hypsilepis (Pomacentridae) is a demersally spawning reef fish, one population of which reproduces in a large, single aggregation at a rocky reef off the central coast of New South Wales, Australia. This study compared the habitat structure (rugosity, reef slope, substratum particle size, and abundance of preferred spawning microhabitat) of the spawning aggregation site and several non-spawning sites, and tested the hypotheses that the spawning aggregation site provided greater off-reef larval transport and prey availability for brooding males. Substratum rugosity was significantly greater and the preferred spawning microhabitat was significantly more abundant at the spawning aggregation site. Reef relief and substratum particle size were not significantly different from non-spawning sites. Passively drifting surface current drogues released at the spawning aggregation site were more rapidly transported off the reef, but did not travel further or faster, than drogues released at a non-spawning site over a 12 h period. Biomass of the preferred prey (copepods of 0.441 to 1.49 mm equivalent spherical diameter) was not significantly greater, but was less variable, at the spawning aggregation site

Gladstone, W. 2007, 'Temporal patterns of spawning and hatching in a spawning aggregation of the temperate reef fish Chromis hypsilepis (Pomacentridae)', Marine Biology, vol. 151, no. 3, pp. 1143-1152.
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Descriptions of temporal patterns in the reproduction of damselfishes (family Pomacentridae) and adaptive hypotheses for these patterns are derived mostly from studies of coral reef species. It is unclear whether the types of temporal patterns and the explanatory power of the adaptive hypotheses are applicable to damselfishes of temperate rocky reefs. This study tested hypotheses about the existence of lunar spawning cycles, the diel timing of hatching, and the synchronization of temporal patterns in hatching and tides in the schooling planktivorous damselfish Chromis hypsilepis on a rocky reef in New South Wales, Australia. Reproductive behaviour was observed daily for 223 days between August 2004 and March 2005. C. hypsilepis formed large spawning aggregations of 3,575+33,075 individuals. Spawning occurred at a uniform rate throughout the day on a semi-lunar cycle. The greatest number of spawnings occurred 1 day after the new moon and 1 day before the full moon. The cost to males from brood care was an 85% reduction in their feeding rate. The semi-lunar spawning cycle may be an outcome of the use of the lunar cue to synchronize the aggregation for spawning of widely dispersed individuals and the need for males to recuperate after brooding. Eggs hatched 3+7 h after sunset following a 4.5-day incubation period. This study provides no support for hypotheses that link temporal patterns in hatching with particular tidal regimes believed to facilitate early survival of larvae and their dispersal. The result that hatching occurred over the tidal cycle was due to the rapid off-reef dispersal of larvae from the spawning ground at all stages of the tide. C. hypsilepis is similar to other planktivorous damselfishes in its semi-lunar spawning cycle, cost of brood care, and protracted diel spawning regime. It differs in its lengthy period of hatching and its breeding in spawning aggregations, believed to be rare among demersally spawning fishes.

Janes, A.R., Gladstone, W. & Hacking, N.J. 2007, 'Australian sandy-beach ecosystems and climate change: ecology and management', Australian Zoologist, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 190-201.
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Despite their great socio-economic importance, sandy beaches have attracted little ecological research. This is unfortunate since, contrary to popular belief, they support diverse ecological assemblages whose species are mostly small and buried and which deserve protection as part of ecologically sustainable development (ESD). Moreover, the management of beaches and linked adjacent ecosystems is becoming increasingly important because of their vulnerability to burgeoning human pressures including climate change. Although there are large uncertainties involved, some of the climate-related environmental changes and their ecological consequences for sandy beaches are explored in this paper, some management issues discussed and research proposed.Temperature-related changes include the likelihood that the geographical ranges of some species will change, some cool-adapted species will decline in abundance, possibly to extinction, and the rate of processes such as decomposition and photosynthesis will increase. The increasing acidification of the ocean may affect many beach species directly via reduced calcification and indirectly via changes to the phytoplankton on which some beach species depend for food.

Malcolm, H.A., Gladstone, W., Lindfield, S., Wraith, J. & Lynch, T.P. 2007, 'Spatial and temporal variation in reef fish assemblages of marine parks in New South Wales, Australia - baited video observations', Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol. 350, pp. 277-290.
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Baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS) were used to examine variation in assemblages of reef fishes at scales of 100s of kilometres (between 3 marine parks in New South Wales, Australia) and kilometres (between 4 sites within each park). Temporal variation over 5 yr was also examined in 1 park (Solitary Islands). BRUVS were able to sample the relative abundance and distribution of species from a wide range of trophic groups, and were particularly effective for detecting cryptic predators. Significant variability in the fish assemblages occurred between each park consistent with the latitudinal distribution of the parks. Fish assemblages also varied significantly between sites within each park. Contrary to expectations, total species richness did not follow the expected latitudinal gradient. However, observed geographical patterns in species richness of certain families such as Labridae (greater richness in the most northern park) and Monacanthidae (greater species richness in southern parks) followed expectations. Abundant schooling species, common to all 3 parks, were important contributors to variation between sites. Temporal variation over 5 yr at 1 park was relatively minor compared to the spatial variation among the 3 parks. This suggests large-scale spatial separation is more important for structuring fish assemblages than time. A network of marine parks will therefore be required to represent variation in reef fish assemblages over this latitudinal scale.

Carraro, R. & Gladstone, W. 2006, 'Habitat preferences and site fidelity of the ornate wobbegong shark (Orectolobus ornatus) on rocky reefs of New South Wales', Pacific Science, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 207-223.
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Habitat and microhabitat preferences and site fidelity of Orectolobus ornatus were assessed between September 2002 and August 2003 to assess potential suitability of marine reserves for its conservation. Of six rocky reef habitats available in the study area (sponge gardens, artificial structures, barren boulders, sand, sea grass, macroalgae), O. ornatus exhibited a significant preference for sponge gardens, artificial structures, and barren boulders habitats. Habitat preferences of males and females, and individuals <1 m and >1 m, did not differ. Orectolobus ornatus selected daytime resting positions with a high topographic complexity and crevice volume and did not select on the basis of prey availability. Habitat and microhabitat preferences may be related to the need for predator avoidance. Regular monitoring of 40 individually identified O. ornatus revealed that none was a permanent resident of the study area. Seven individuals exhibited short-term temporary fidelity to the study area; they were resighted frequently for part of an intensive 100-day survey. Remaining individuals were temporary visitors; they were resighted at most once after initial identification or returning after extended absences. Monthly population surveys confirmed the turnover of O. ornatus in the study area. The lack of long-term site fidelity suggests that small marine reserves will be ineffective as a conservation strategy for O. ornatus.

Gladstone, W., Stanger, R. & Phelps, L. 2006, 'A participatory approach to university teaching about partnerships for biodiversity conservation', Australian Journal of Environmental Education, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 21-31.

Gladstone, W., Hacking, N.J. & Owen, V. 2006, 'Effects of artificial openings of intermittently opening estuaries on macroinvertebrate assemblages of the entrance barrier', Estuarine Coastal And Shelf Science, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 708-720.
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NA

Boissonneault, M.F., Gladstone, W., Scott, P. & Cushing, N. 2005, 'Grey nurse shark human interactions and portrayals: a study of newspaper portrayals of the grey nurse shark from 1969-2003', Electronic green journal, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 1-15.
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The article presents information on a study that consists of a content analysis of 41 Australian newspaper articles pertaining specifically to the grey nurse shark and serves to deconstruct the explicit messages that they attempt to convey to their readers. The data generated by this study exemplify the perceptions of Carcharias taurus as represented by major Australian newspapers between the years 1969 and 2003. The term agenda-setting refers to the creation of public awareness and concern for issues that are reported by the news media. The fundamental basis for research on agenda-setting is to recognize that the media is not a reflection of reality but rather filters and shapes reality, and the focus that the media places on specific issues leads the public to perceive "those" issues as more important than others. In a 1997 study entitled "Changing Attitudes Toward California Cougars," Jennifer R. Wolch and Unna Lassiter of the University of Southern California along with Andrea Gullo of the Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority in Los Angeles analyzed the impact that the newspaper media had on attitudes and understandings that the public had developed towards the California Cougar.

Courtenay, G.C., Gladstone, W. & Schreider, M. 2005, 'Assessing the reponse of estuarine intertidal assemblages to urbanised catchment discharge', Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, vol. 107, no. 1-3, pp. 375-398.
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Measurement of intertidal rock assemblages was investigated as a potential biological indicator to provide a quantitative estimate of the impact of urbanised catchment discharge on the estuaries of Sydney, Australia, from 1995 to 1999. Based on the presence and characteristics of adjacent human activities, sampling locations were categorised as: Bush; Urban; Urban with Sewer Overflows; and Industry with Sewer Overflows. In Sydney Harbour, variation in assemblage structure was measured between most impact categories, however differences between impact categories were not consistent for each year. Nevertheless, in years of above average rainfall (1998+1999), reference assemblages adjacent to national parks and distant from urbanisation were different to all other putatively impacted assemblages.

Gladstone, W. & Alexander, T. 2005, 'A test of the higher-taxon approach in the identification of candidate sites for marine reserves', Biodiversity and conservation, vol. 14, no. 13, pp. 3151-3168.
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Alternatives to species-level identification have been advocated as one solution to the problem of selecting marine reserves with limited information on the distribution of marine biodiversity.This study evaluated the effects on selection of candidate sites for marine reserves from using the higher-taxon approach as a surrogate for species-level identification of intertidal molluscs and rocky reef fishes. These effects were evaluated by determining the percentage of species included in candidate reserves identified from genus-, family- and order-level data by a complementarity-based reserve selection algorithm, and by testing for correlations between the irreplaceability values of locations. Candidate reserves identified from genus- and family-level data of intertidal molluscs included a similar percentage of all species as the reserves identified from species-level data. Candidate reserves selected from genus- and family-level data of rocky reef fishes included, respectively, 3+7% and 14+23% fewer species than reserves selected from species-level data.

Gladstone, W., Krupp, F. & Younis, M. 2003, 'Development and management of a network of marine protected areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region', Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 46, pp. 741-761.

Gladstone, W. & Schreider, M. 2003, 'Effects of pruning a temperature mangrove forest on the associated assemblages of macroinvertebrates', Marine and Freshwater Research, vol. 54, pp. 683-690.
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Mangrove forests around the world are being impacted by development in adjacent land and water areas. An after-control-impact study was undertaken to assess the effects of mangrove forest pruning on the associated benthic macroinvertebrate fauna. Pruning, undertaken 5 years before our sampling period, reduced the height of the forest canopy from 5 m to 1 m. Macrobenthic assemblages were sampled in September 2000 and January 2001 from two randomly selected sites within the pruned section of forest, and two sites in each of two control locations in the same forest. Assemblage composition in the pruned and undisturbed mangrove forests was not significantly different, nor were there significant differences in variability between the two areas. Similarity matrices for assemblages based on higher taxonomic groups and molluscs were highly correlated with similarity matrices for all taxa, indicating the utility of more rapid forms of assessment in this habitat. The results suggest that although short-term impacts may have occurred, no impact on macroinvertebrate assemblages was evident 5 years after the pruning.

Gladstone, W. & davis, j. 2003, 'Reduced survey intensity and its consequences for marine reserve selection', Biodiversity and conservation, vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 1525-1536.
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There has been much interest in the potential of short-cuts in biodiversity surveys (e.g. physical surrogates, indicator groups, and lower taxonomic resolution) in systematic processes to select networks of representative marine reserves. This study tested the consequences for reserve selection of reducing survey intensity in intertidal rocky shores in southeast Australia. Using a reference data set of species'' distributions based on surveys of two replicate sites in each of 15 locations, a reduction in survey intensity was simulated by randomly eliminating the data from one of the replicate sites in each location. A complementarity-based reserve selection algorithm was used to determine the number of locations required to represent all species once in a reserve network and the irreplaceability value of locations. A reduction in survey intensity led to increases in: the size of reserve networks (of between 8 and 17%); the irreplaceability value of locations; and the number of irreplaceable locations. These changes were caused by a reduction in the observed range sizes of species in the data sets simulating a reduced survey intensity.

Gladstone, W. 2002, 'Fisheries of the Farasan Islands (Red Sea)', Naga, WorldFish Center Quarterly, vol. 25, pp. 30-34.

Gladstone, W. 2002, 'The potential value of indicator groups in the selection of marine reserves', Biological Conservation, vol. 104, pp. 211-220.

Gladstone, W. 2000, 'The ecological and social basis for management of a Red Sea marine-protected area', Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 43, pp. 1015-1032.

Gladstone, W., Tawiq, N., Nasr, D., Andersen, I., Cheung, C., Drammeh, H., Krupp, F. & Lintner, S. 1999, 'Sustainable use of renewable resources and conservation in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: issues, needs and strategic actions', Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 42, pp. 671-697.

Gladstone, W. 1996, 'Unique annual aggregation of longnose parrotfish (Hipposcarus harid) at Farasan Island (Saudi Arabia, Red Sea)', Copeia, vol. 1996, no. 2, pp. 483-485.

Gladstone, W. 1994, 'Lek-like spawning, parental care and mating periodicity of the triggerfish Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus (Balistidae)', Environmental Biology Of Fishes, vol. 39, pp. 249-257.

Gladstone, W. & Dight, I.J. 1994, 'Torres Strait baseline study', Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 29, no. 1-3, pp. 121-125.

St John, J., Russ, G. & Gladstone, W. 1990, 'Accuracy and bias of visual estimates of numbers, size structure and biomass of a coral reef fish', Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 253-262.
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NA

Stroud, G.J., Goldman, B. & Gladstone, W. 1989, 'Laval development, growth and age determination in the Sharpnose Pufferfish Canthigaster valentini (Teleostei: Tetraodontidae)', Japanese Journal of Ichthyology, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 327-337.

Gladstone, W. & Westoby, M. 1988, 'Growth and reproduction in Canthigaster valentini (Pisces, Tetraodontidae): a comparison of a toxic reef fish with other reef fishes', Environmental Biology Of Fishes, vol. 21, pp. 207-222.

Gladstone, W. 1987, 'Role of female territoriality in social and mating systems of Canthigaster valentini (Pisces: Tetraodontidae): evidence from field experiments', Marine Biology, vol. 96, pp. 185-191.
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Sharpnose puffers, Canthigaster valentini (Pisces: Tetraodontidae) at Lizard Island, Australia, live in made-dominated haremic social and mating systems. The hypothesis was that mature females are restricted in their movements and can be monopolized by some males. Field experiments at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, between January and March 1983 showed that mature females were still territorial in the absence of males and movements of females were not controlled by males. Males abandoned their territories when their females were removed. The territorial behavior of those males with access to females (territorial males) restricted the access of other males (bachelor males) to them. Bachelor males took over harems and became territorial males when established territorial males were removed. The results of the experiments thus supported the hypothesis.

Gladstone, W. 1987, 'The courtship and spawning behaviors of Cunthigaster valentini (Tetraodontidae)', Environmental Biology Of Fishes, vol. 20, pp. 225-261.

Gladstone, W. 1987, 'The eggs and larvae of the sharpnose pufferfish Canthigaster valentini (Pisces Tetraodontidae) are unpalatable to other reef fishes', Copeia, vol. 1987, pp. 227-230.

Gladstone, W. 1986, 'Spawning behavior of the Bumphead Parrotfish Bolbometopon muricatum at Yonge Reef, Great Barrier Reef', Japanese Journal of Ichthyology, vol. 33, pp. 326-328.

Kabir, S.Z., Momtaz, S., Gladstone, W. 2010, 'The quality of Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) in Bangladesh', 30th Annual Meeting of the International Association for Impact Assessment, Geneva, April 2010 in IAIA10 Conference Proceedings, ed Loreley Fortuny, IAIA International Headquarters, United States.